Foundations of Modern Europe: Absolutism, Revolutions, Nationalism

Posted on Sep 22, 2025 in History

The Old Regime: Society & Economy

  • False: Industry was the most important activity of the Old Regime. Instead, crop agriculture and livestock farming were the dominant economic activities.
  • False: When a noble died, his land became the property of the king. Instead, it became the property of the eldest son (due to primogeniture).
  • False: Guilds controlled most of the agrarian activity. Guilds primarily regulated urban crafts and trades, while agrarian activity was dominated by feudal or manorial systems.

Absolutism vs. Parliamentary Monarchy

Understanding the fundamental differences in governance:

Absolutism
  • Absolute Power of Kings: Monarchs held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.
  • Divine Right of Kings: The belief that God was the source of a monarch’s power, placing them above the law.
Parliamentary Monarchy
  • Limits to Absolute Power: The monarch’s power was constrained.
  • Executive Power: Held by the king.
  • Legislative Power: Resided with the Parliament (composed of the House of Lords and the House of Commons).
  • Judicial Power: Exercised by independent judges and tribunals.

Defining Key Historical Terms

Mercantilism
The economic policies of absolute monarchs, based on the belief that there was a fixed amount of trade in the world. A country’s wealth was determined by the amount of gold and silver accumulated.
Divine Right of Kings
According to this doctrine, God was the source of a monarch’s power, and the monarch was therefore above the law.
Royal Factories
Large workshops belonging to the monarchy, where weapons and luxury goods were manufactured.
Triangular Trade
A complex trade route connecting Africa, Europe, and America. European ships sailed with cheap products to Africa, exchanging them for slaves. These slaves were then sold in America, and the ships returned to Europe with products like cotton and sugar.

The Enlightenment: Reason, Thinkers, and Ideas

  • The Enlightenment was fundamentally based on Reason.
  • Montesquieu defended the separation of powers.
  • Education was considered very important during the Enlightenment.
  • Rousseau believed that power should reside in the people.
  • Carlos III and Catherine the Great of Russia were part of a movement called Enlightened Despotism.

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

The Habsburg king, Carlos II, died without children in 1700, leading to two rival candidates for the Spanish throne:

  • Philippe, Duke of Anjou: Grandson of Louis XIV, the Bourbon candidate, supported by France.
  • Archduke Charles: The Habsburg candidate, supported by the Holy Roman Empire.

Carlos II named Philippe of Anjou as his successor, but Archduke Charles did not accept this, initiating the war in 1701.

Conflict Dynamics

  • International Conflict: France and Spain opposed an alliance of European powers (the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, and Britain), who were concerned about potential Bourbon supremacy in Europe.
  • Civil War within Spain: Much of Castile supported Philippe of Anjou, while the Crown of Aragon supported Archduke Charles.

Resolution: Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt (1713-1714)

The war concluded with a series of treaties:

  • Treaty of Utrecht (1713): Recognized the Bourbon candidate, Philippe, who became Felipe V, King of Spain.
  • Territorial Changes:
    • Austria received Spanish territories in Flanders and Italy.
    • Britain received Gibraltar and Menorca, and was also granted significant privileges in its trade with America.
  • End of Spanish Opposition: Within Spain, opposition to Felipe V ended when Barcelona was taken in 1714.

American Revolution: “No Taxation Without Representation”

This powerful motto emerged during the political tensions of the American Revolution. The thirteen colonies, subject to the authority of England, used this phrase as a sign of protest. The settlers were not represented in the British Parliament, yet they were compelled to pay taxes imposed by it, leading to widespread discontent and ultimately, revolution.

Causes of the French Revolution

The French Revolution was driven by a confluence of factors:

  • Social Unrest: Deep inequalities and grievances within French society.
  • Economic Crisis: Severe financial difficulties, including national debt and poor harvests.
  • Enlightenment Ideas: New philosophical concepts promoting liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty challenged the Old Regime.

French Revolution: Key Events & Misconceptions

  • False: The first constitution established the first republic in 1791. (The first constitution was in 1791, but it established a constitutional monarchy; the First Republic was proclaimed in 1792.)
  • True: The Third Estate was represented by the Estates-General in 1789.
  • False: Other European powers supported the ideas of the French Revolution. (Initially, many European powers opposed the revolution, fearing its spread.)
  • False: The National Constituent Assembly was formed by privileged estates. Instead, it was formed by the representatives of the Third Estate.
  • False: The French Revolution strengthened the Old Regime. Instead, it destroyed it.

French Revolution & Post-Revolutionary Terms

Jacobins
Supporters of a centralized republican state and strong central government powers, advocating for extensive government intervention to transform society.
National Sovereignty
The inherent ability of a country to make independent decisions regarding its governance and policies.
Committee of Public Safety
Led by figures like Georges Danton and later Maximilien Robespierre, this tribunal tried individuals suspected of opposing the Republic. Even without conclusive proof, suspects were often sentenced to death by guillotine, which became a notorious symbol of the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror.
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
A pivotal meeting where European powers convened to prevent future revolutions and restore stability after the Napoleonic Wars. Key agreements included:
  • Territorial gains for Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
  • The establishment of France as a protective barrier.
  • France’s return to its pre-revolution frontiers.

Forms of Nationalism: Unification & Disintegration

Nationalism manifested in two primary ways during this period:

  • Disintegration of States: Nations seeking independence from larger empires or multi-ethnic states, such as Greece breaking away from the Ottoman Empire.
  • Unification of States: Nations divided into many smaller states gradually discovering their shared identity and uniting into a single, larger state, exemplified by the unifications of Italy and Germany.