Foundations of Literary Theory and Criticism

Posted on May 27, 2026 in English Studies

Definitions of Literature

Based on Terry Eagleton’s What is Literature (1988, 1-9).

The Problem of Defining Literature

There is no final definition of literature.
Some definitions have been suggested but remain problematic:

Literature as Fiction

Writings based on real events can also be considered literature (see the extract from In Cold Blood).
Not all fiction is considered literature (e.g., comics).

Literature as Creative or Imaginative Writing

Texts like essays and philosophy are “creative,” but generally not considered literature.

Literature Uses Language in a Particular Way

This involves “deformed” or “strange” language.
However, the same qualities that make up literary language (metaphor, rhyme, ambiguity, etc.) are present in all uses of language.

Literature as Non-Pragmatic Language

This refers to practical versus non-practical texts.
However, an essay, for example, is trying to convince the reader and is still considered literature.
See extracts from Dracula.

The Subjectivity of Literature

There is no objective definition of literature. The idea of literature is not stable and has changed over time.
The same applies to its evaluation: the value of a literary work changes over time.
This is why we need to comment on and evaluate literary texts (what is called literary criticism), because:

Literary texts do not have a definite explanation and evaluation.
Literary texts are open for interpretation.

Literary Criticism and Theory

Insights from Charles Bressler’s What is Literary Criticism?

Defining Literary Criticism

Literary criticism is a disciplined activity that attempts to study, analyze, interpret, and evaluate a work of art (Bressler 1994, 3).
It examines the aesthetic and methodological principles of literary works.
Criticism depends on the existence of a work of art.
“When analyzing a work of art, literary critics ask basic questions concerning the philosophical, psychological, functional, and descriptive nature of a text” (Bressler 1994, 3). See www.literarycrit.com.
Theoretical criticism formulates theories, principles, and beliefs regarding the nature of a work of art.
Practical criticism applies these theories to a particular work.
Absolutist vs. Relativistic Critic: An absolutist uses one theory, while a relativistic critic uses several. Since we are not producing nor learning any specific theories here, our goal is to become relativistic critics practicing a technique called “closed reading.”

Understanding Literary Theory

The evaluation of a text depends on theory.
“Our response to any text, then… is largely a conditioned or programmed one—that is, how we arrive at meaning in fiction is in part determined by our past experiences” (Bressler 1994, 4).
Literary Theory consists of concepts that explain what literature is and what it means (interpretation): “How we as readers make meaning out of a text will depend upon the mental framework that each of us has developed concerning the nature of reality” (Bressler 1994, 4). This is our worldview.
Questions such as: What is the meaning of life? What is moral or immoral? What is true? constitute our worldview.
“[T]he relationship between the reader and the text is not linear, but transactional” (Bressler 1994, 5). Meaning happens between the text (author) and the reader. The reader interprets the text.
Literary theories provide the background for our interpretation. Theories direct the reading (interpretation). There are many Schools of Criticism (theories).
“What elicits the response [to a text], or how the reader makes meaning out of the text, is what matters” (Bressler 1994, 4).
“The reader and the text transact or interact, creating meaning, for meaning does not exist solely within the reader’s mind or solely within the text” (Bressler 1994, 5).

The Six Functions of Language

The Referential Function: Corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object, or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g., “The autumn leaves have all fallen now.”
The Expressive Function: (Alternatively called “emotive” or “affective”) Relates to the Addresser and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser’s (speaker’s) internal state, e.g., “Wow, what a view!”
The Conative Function: Engages the Addressee directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g., “Tom! Come inside and eat!”
The Phatic Function: Language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with contact. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers.
The Metalinguistic Function: (Also called “reflexive”) The use of language (what Jakobson calls “Code”) to discuss or describe itself, e.g., linguistics or literary criticism themselves.
The Poetic Function: Focuses on “the message for its own sake” and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans. This function calls the attention of communication to the message.

Jakobson’s Definition of Literature

For Jakobson, the definition of literature and literary language is clear: it is a particular function of linguistic communication that focuses its attention on the message itself. The message is somewhat different from a non-literary message; Jakobson supports the definition of literature as an aesthetic experience and a definition of style as a variation of the code that makes it look different.

Theoretical Positions in Criticism

This diagram may also serve as a guide to understand some of the theoretical positions of literary criticism:

By focusing on the writer and what he means, we are using a traditional approach to literature.
If we center upon the reader and his/her interpretation of a literary text, we are using “reader-response” criticism, and so on.