Foundations of Language Pedagogy: Innovators, Methods & Classroom Practice
Innovators in Foreign Language Teaching
This section explains the relevance of key innovators in foreign language teaching: Nebrija, Comenius, Madame Leprince, and A.S. Hornby.
Antonio de Nebrija: Pioneer of Spanish Grammar
Nebrija stands out in the history of the Spanish language due to his publication in 1492, La Gramática Castellana. This groundbreaking work on grammar was divided into four parts: one dedicated to spelling, the second to prosody, the third to etymology, and the fourth to syntax. It also included a section in Spanish for foreign students. Furthermore, Nebrija is the author of the first dictionary of the Spanish language.
John Amos Comenius: Father of Didactics
Comenius is renowned for the great importance he attached to the study of languages. He authored several influential books, with the most important being Didactica Magna. Another significant work is his book Orbis Pictus, written in Latin. He is widely known as the father of didactics and was the first to introduce images to teach languages effectively.
Madame Leprince de Beaumont: Storytelling in Language Learning
Madame Leprince de Beaumont was a French author who is notable for being the first to introduce storytelling in foreign languages in Europe. One of her most important books is her version of Beauty and the Beast. It is worth noting that she is considered one of the first writers of children’s and young adult literature.
A.S. Hornby: English Grammarian and Lexicographer
A.S. Hornby was an English grammarian and a pioneer in learning and teaching English. He is the author of the first monolingual dictionary for students and developed an associated teaching method called the situational approach. Subsequent editions of his dictionary continue to be successful today.
Language Teaching Methods: Pros and Cons
This section provides an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of various language teaching methods.
Traditional Method
Advantages:
- Curriculum Clarity: Students can easily follow the curriculum using textbooks, knowing exactly what they are working on and what the teacher is teaching.
- Motivation through Grades: The system is based on numerical test results, which can be positive as good grades stimulate and motivate students.
Disadvantages:
- Generalized Teaching: The teacher often teaches in a generalized way without considering the specific skills and needs of individual students.
- Limited Progress Tracking: Grades are set from various tests, and the individual progress of each student is not always taken into account.
- Competition and Demotivation: Grades can create an environment of competition and demotivation, especially when they are low.
Grammar-Translation Method
The Grammar-Translation method introduces the idea of presenting students with short grammar rules and word lists, and then translation exercises in which they apply these rules and words.
Advantages:
- Cognitive Translation: Most language learners naturally translate internally, and they can learn a lot about a foreign language by comparing it to their mother tongue.
Disadvantages:
- Hindrance to Natural Acquisition: This method can prevent students from acquiring natural language, which is crucial for effective communication.
- Limited L2 Communication: Students do not primarily use the target language (L2) for communication.
- Focus on Knowledge, Not Communication: It teaches students about the language but does not effectively help them communicate with it.
Direct Method
The Direct Method teaches the foreign language through a natural approach, emphasizing speaking and listening to increase fluency, while de-emphasizing explicit grammar instruction. It prioritizes speaking English in the classroom, working with everyday vocabulary, and includes visual aids to support learning.
Advantages:
- Natural Language Acquisition: Focuses on speaking and listening for fluency.
- Everyday Vocabulary: Emphasizes practical, daily language use.
- Visual Aids: Incorporates visual support for better comprehension.
Disadvantages:
- Neglect of Grammar, Reading, and Writing: It does not pay sufficient attention to grammar, reading, or writing skills.
- Classroom Size and Teacher Expertise: It does not adapt well to large classroom sizes and requires a highly skilled teacher or expert instructor.
Audiolingualism
This teaching method respects the individual level and rhythm of each student, considering their needs and abilities when introducing new concepts. It uses conditioning theory by rewarding learners for every advance or positive aspect they achieve. Concepts are structured from easiest to most difficult.
Advantages:
- Individualized Pace: Respects the level and individual rhythm of each student.
- Positive Reinforcement: Rewards learners for progress, using conditioning theory.
- Structured Learning: Concepts are presented progressively from easy to difficult.
Disadvantages:
- Passive Student Role: Students often have a passive role and limited control over their learning due to its mechanical nature.
- Limited Communicative Competence: It does not place much importance on developing communicative competence.
Task-Based Learning (TBL)
In TBL, students focus on carrying out tasks related to daily life, allowing them to review and correct imperfections later. TBL helps teachers and students understand how to achieve goals with language and how language can be used for different tasks.
Advantages:
- Real-World Relevance: Focuses on tasks relevant to students’ daily lives.
- Self-Correction: Encourages students to review and correct their own work.
- Language for Purpose: Emphasizes using language to achieve specific tasks.
Disadvantages:
- Undefined Practices: This method does not always have totally defined practices.
- Student Willingness: It relies on students’ willingness to carry out tasks, which may not always be present.
Communicative Approach (CLT)
The Communicative Approach aims to increase fluency in the language, enabling learners to be more confident when interacting with others and encouraging more speaking.
Advantages:
- Increased Fluency: Promotes natural and confident interaction.
- Enhanced Speaking: Encourages students to speak more.
Disadvantages:
- Context Neglect: Pays insufficient attention to the specific context in which teaching and learning occur.
- Misinterpretation of Communication: Can be misinterpreted as ‘if the teacher understands the student, we have good communication,’ but native speakers of the target language may still have difficulty understanding the students.
The Language Portfolio and CEFR
What is the Language Portfolio?
The Language Portfolio, developed by the Council of Europe, provides a practical application of the notion of learner autonomy. Learners can record their language learning achievements and intercultural experiences, and set learning targets related to the CEFR competence descriptors.
Components of the Language Portfolio:
- Language Passport: Summarizes the learner’s linguistic identity.
- Language Biography: Provides an opportunity for the learner to describe and reflect on their language learning experience with the foreign language.
- Dossier: Where the learner documents different forms of evidence of how their proficiency in the language is developing.
Understanding Learner Autonomy
What is Learner Autonomy?
The notion of learner autonomy emphasizes the significant role learners can play in their own learning, often independently of the methods teachers use. Autonomous learners approach learning from the ‘bottom up,’ believing that teachers do not need to ‘fill’ them with information; instead, they prefer to construct their knowledge themselves.
Main Features of Learner Autonomy:
- Student Involvement: Supports involving students in decisions and activities concerning setting learning objectives, determining ways and means of learning, and reflecting on and evaluating what they have learned.
- Personalized Learning: Makes learning more personal and focused, leading to better learning outcomes as it is based on learners’ needs and preferences.
- Self-Directed Knowledge Construction: Learners actively build their own knowledge rather than passively receiving it.
Essential Parts of a Lesson Plan
What is a Lesson Plan?
A lesson plan is a resource teachers use to organize their classes. It helps teachers remember their goals during a session and collect information about past or future activities. A comprehensive lesson plan should include the following sections:
Core Lesson Plan Sections:
- Description of Students: General information about the group (how they work, respond to activities), potentially a group photo, and brief individual information.
- Aims and Objectives: What the teacher intends to achieve during the session.
- Procedures: Details on interaction patterns and timings for activities.
- Anticipated Problems: Strategies to overcome potential issues in class (e.g., technology failure).
- Extra Activities/Material: Examples of materials to be used with students, especially for observed lessons.
- Group, Date, Time, and Number of Students: Basic logistical information.
- Recent Topic Work and Recent Language Work: What has been covered previously.
- Teacher Activity and Student Activity: Describes actions for both the teacher and students.
- Success Indicators: Notes on what went well.
- Homework: Tasks or activities for students to complete outside of class.
Additional Secondary Parts for a Lesson Plan:
- Teacher Self-Evaluation: A section where teachers can reflect on and self-evaluate their actions and teaching methods used during the session to identify areas for improvement and successful strategies to replicate.
- Student Feedback and Opinions: A section to collect students’ concerns and needs, providing valuable insights for future planning.
- Session Photographs: A visual record of the session to recall activities and atmosphere in the future.
Classroom Challenges and Solutions for Teachers
Problem 1: Technology Failure
A common problem is when a teacher plans to use new technologies (e.g., computer, projector) but they fail to work in the classroom. In such cases, it is crucial for the teacher to adapt to the new situation and be able to perform another type of session.
Solution:
Try to replace the planned video with a role-play activity, or present the day’s content through an improvised game. Flexibility and alternative activities are key.
Problem 2: Students with Limited English Proficiency
Another challenge arises when several students do not understand English, especially if they have recently arrived at the school and are new to the language. It is important to adapt sessions so they can gradually keep up with their classmates.
Solution:
Initially provide information in their native language (e.g., Spanish) and then in English. This approach prevents demotivation and helps them gradually acquire the language without feeling overwhelmed.
Classroom Seating Arrangements and Activities
Orderly Rows Seating
While often criticized, sitting in orderly rows has advantages, especially for certain activities. It makes it easier for the teacher to see all students and approach them to address doubts. Students can also clearly see the blackboard or what the teacher is presenting.
Example Activity:
To introduce a new grammatical concept, such as comparatives and superlatives, show a video with examples of people using them. Students could then do an initial activity where the teacher provides personalized help by approaching each table.
Circles or Horseshoes Seating
Sitting in circles or horseshoes facilitates large group tasks and allows all students to see each other’s faces. This arrangement is often used to encourage students to share information and opinions on various topics.
Example Activity:
Divide the class into two teams and have them discuss a current topic from their seats. This setup effectively practices speaking and promotes group interaction.
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)
What is the CEFR?
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is one of the most important frameworks globally for language teaching. Developed by the Council of Europe, it aimed to innovate language teaching in Europe and is considered one of the first models of a communication syllabus since the 1970s.
The CEFR is divided into different aspects to help learners use language for communication, knowledge, and effective skills. These aspects are: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Within these aspects, different levels (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) are defined to cater to the needs of learners and the context. It is important to note that the CEFR can be used to teach English, French, German, and Spanish, and various documents and standardized tests are available online for practice.
Characteristics of a Good Language Learner
Joan Rubin presents seven characteristics that define good language learners. Four of these are:
- Uninhibited and Willing to Take Risks: They are often not inhibited and are willing to appear foolish if reasonable communication results.
- Active Practice Seekers: They practice and actively seek out opportunities to practice.
- Meaning-Focused: They attend to meaning, knowing that to understand a message, it is not sufficient to attend only to grammar or surface form of a language.
- Form-Attentive: They are prepared to attend to form, constantly looking for patterns in the language.
Key Terms in Language Teaching and Their Relevance
Topic Linking
Definition: Topic linking refers to the connection between two lessons or concepts that maintain the coherence and union between different sessions.
Relevance to Teaching: It is highly relevant because students can see the relationship between general topics and specific themes, which aids comprehension and retention.
Rough-Tuning
Definition: Rough-tuning involves simplifying the language that teachers or speakers use when they realize that listeners do not understand them. In teaching, it is done by teachers when students cannot follow their explanations or what they are saying.
Relevance to Teaching: Teachers must consider the type of language students understand, the best way to convey information, and how they are going to speak. It is important because the level of difficulty is adapted to the students, ensuring their comprehension.
Language Function
Definition: A language function is the purpose you wish to achieve when you say or write something (e.g., apologizing, requesting, agreeing).
Relevance to Teaching: Teachers must keep in mind the purpose of what they are telling students. Furthermore, as teachers, we must teach students how to speak appropriately depending on the message, the situation, and the recipient. It is important to adapt our teaching methods to different classroom situations.
Comprehensible Input
Definition: Comprehensible input is considered a relaxed and non-threatening way to receive information from teachers. When teachers use comprehensible input, students understand and acquire the language better.
Relevance to Teaching: This method is relevant because it helps students to understand and acquire language more effectively by providing input that is slightly beyond their current level but still understandable.
Patchwork Lesson
Definition: A patchwork lesson is a sequence of lessons consisting of the following elements: 1) Take Action, 2) Activate, 3) Study, 4) Activate, 5) Study, 6) Take Action, 7) Activate. These sequences are very positive for balancing study and activation.
Relevance to Teaching: These ‘Engage, Study, and Activate’ elements are key to success, especially at intermediate and advanced levels. When these steps are followed, students are better able to learn the language as effectively as possible.
Scaffolded Learning
Definition: Scaffolded learning is an educational method that involves guiding students to solve a problem or do activities with gradually decreasing outside help, making a gradual process of detachment from the teacher’s figure.
Relevance to Teaching: It has high relevance because it helps students become more independent and trust themselves to perform tasks, fostering self-reliance.
Acronyms in Language Teaching and Activities
Common Acronyms:
- ESA: Engage – Study – Activate
- TBL: Task-Based Learning
- PPP: Presentation – Practice – Production
- CLT: Communicative Language Teaching
- TESOL: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
- SLA: Second Language Acquisition
- CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning
Typical Activities:
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Activity:
CLT emphasizes that students should not only know grammar and vocabulary basics but also how to use them. To work according to CLT, I would divide the class into small groups (e.g., two or three students) to carry out ‘conversations’ or role-plays. For example, one student could be a child wanting to go to a camp, and another the parent, simulating a situation where the parent doesn’t allow them to go. This way, they practice oral language in a meaningful context.
Task-Based Learning (TBL) Activity:
TBL is a natural extension of communicative language teaching, with an emphasis on the task rather than just the language. TBL allows teachers and students to concentrate on how to achieve things with language and how language can be used for specific tasks. An example activity for TBL is to have students create a presentation on a topic of interest to them. For instance, in groups, they could present the typical meals of different countries. The teacher could record them so that later they can correct mistakes related to language, grammar, and pronunciation.
Characteristics of an Effective Teacher
The term ‘good teacher’ is broad, as individual opinions may vary. However, several aspects and characteristics generally define an effective teacher.
Key Characteristics:
- Professionalism and Realism: An effective teacher demonstrates realism to students and maintains a professional demeanor. First impressions and how teachers present themselves are important.
- Adaptability: A good teacher has the ability to adapt to different classroom situations, student needs, and can improvise lessons if something unexpected occurs (e.g., technology issues).
- Versatility in Roles: An effective teacher can adopt various roles in the class (e.g., controller, facilitator, assessor) depending on the lesson’s objective and the way it is being conducted, to satisfy student needs and keep the class active.
- Empathy and Active Listening: Students appreciate teachers who listen to them when they have problems or need help. Teachers should be approachable, making students feel comfortable in class. While individual attention is not always possible, an effective teacher can convey attentiveness to all students.
- Constructive Correction: A good teacher has the ability to provide feedback and correct students respectfully, without demotivating them. This approach makes students feel safer and more willing to participate, knowing they won’t be ridiculed.
- Varied Lesson Preparation: It is essential that an effective teacher prepares classes considering students’ needs and varies the way knowledge is presented. Alternating work methods (e.g., group work, individual tasks) depending on the class type is highly beneficial.
Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. Since 1980, he has published over 100 books and articles and has delivered over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.
The 5 Hypotheses of Krashen’s Theory:
- The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
- The Monitor Hypothesis
- The Input Hypothesis
- The Affective Filter Hypothesis
- The Natural Order Hypothesis
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:
This is the most fundamental of the five hypotheses. The ‘acquired system’ or ‘acquisition’ is the product of a subconscious process, very similar to how children acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – where speakers focus on the communicative act, not the form of their utterances. The ‘learned system’ or ‘learning’ is the product of formal instruction, a conscious process resulting in conscious knowledge ‘about’ the language (e.g., grammar rules). A deductive, teacher-centered approach produces ‘learning,’ while an inductive, student-centered approach leads to ‘acquisition.’
The Monitor Hypothesis:
This hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning, defining the influence of the latter on the former. The role of conscious learning in second language performance appears somewhat limited. According to Krashen, the monitor’s role is minor, used only to correct deviations from ‘normal’ speech and to give speech a more ‘polished’ appearance. Extroverts are typically ‘under-users,’ while introverts and perfectionists are ‘over-users.’ Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the ‘monitor.’
The Input Hypothesis:
This hypothesis is concerned only with ‘acquisition,’ not ‘learning.’ According to Krashen, the learner improves and progresses along the ‘natural order’ when they receive second language ‘input’ that is one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence (i+1).
The Affective Filter Hypothesis:
This hypothesis embodies Krashen’s view that a number of ‘affective variables’ play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety, and personality traits. A high affective filter (e.g., high anxiety) can impede acquisition.
The Natural Order Hypothesis:
This less important hypothesis is based on research findings suggesting that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a ‘natural order’ which is predictable.
The Role of Grammar in Krashen’s View:
Krashen rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition. The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when students are interested in the subject, and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. This is a subtle point: both teachers and students may believe that the subject matter itself (the study of grammar) is responsible for progress, but in reality, progress comes from the medium (the target language being used for communication) and not the message (the grammar rules). Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well.