Foundational Philosophical Concepts and Theories

Posted on Jun 6, 2025 in Philosophy and ethics

Kant’s Critique: Senses, Understanding, and Reason

Kant’s critical philosophy unifies empiricism and rationalism. Sensitivity receives external data through the senses and organizes it in space and time. Understanding structures this data using innate categories shared by all humans. Reason seeks ultimate principles, producing three metaphysical ideas: soul (inner experience), world (outer experience), and God (total experience).

Limits of Knowledge: Dogmatism and Skepticism

Knowledge must be constantly reviewed. Dogmatism rejects criticism and believes its own view is the only valid one (irrational). Skepticism holds that we cannot gain reliable knowledge of truth.

Relativism: Subjectivity of Truth

Relativism denies the existence of absolute or objective truth; truth depends on each person’s perspective (subjectivism). Cultural relativism promotes tolerance by viewing all cultures as equally valid. Epistemic relativism claims that scientific theories are not better than past ones, just different. Denying truth leads to the abandonment of the principle of non-contradiction, rejection of investigation, elimination of conflict, and promotion of personal interests.

Post-Truth: Facts, Opinions, and Societal Impact

In a post-truth era, it is impossible to distinguish between facts and opinions or between truth and falsehood. Hannah Arendt and George Orwell warned of societal collapse due to this phenomenon.

History of Science: Ancient to Modern Eras

In Ancient and Medieval times, science and philosophy were indistinct. Philosophy was superior because it searched for first causes.

  • Productive Sciences: poetry, music
  • Practical Sciences: politics, ethics
  • Theoretical Sciences: philosophy, mathematics

In the Modern Age, science changed our understanding of reality. Key figures include: Copernicus (16th century), Galileo (17th century), and Newton (17th century).

Components of Science: Language, Concepts, Theories

Natural language is common and everyday (e.g., “light reflects”), while artificial language is precise and technical (e.g., “law of gravitation”). Science is made up of:

  • Concepts:
    • Qualitative: grouping
    • Comparative: gradual ordering
    • Metric: numerical measurement
  • Laws: describe regularities in nature by linking concepts
  • Theories: interconnected laws that explain reality in a coherent, consistent, and systematic way
  • Systems: a set of theories forming a broader scientific framework

Scientific Methods: Deduction, Induction, and Hypothesis

The deductive method goes from general to particular, starting with premises assumed to be true; if they are, the conclusion is necessarily true (e.g., syllogism). The inductive method goes from particular to general, based on repeated observations. It allows for innovation, but carries risk due to incomplete data or outdated theories.

The Hypothetical-Deductive Method

The hypothetical-deductive method combines induction and deduction through six steps:

  1. Identify a problem.
  2. Formulate a testable, universal hypothesis.
  3. Deduce consequences of the hypothesis.
  4. Test empirically.
  5. Verify or reject the hypothesis based on results.
  6. Draw conclusions if confirmed.

Experimentation in Positive Science

Science is a systematic and empirical way of explaining how reality works through tests and analysis. There are two types of science:

  • Formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics) do not study physical reality and rely on deductive reasoning, where truth equals logical coherence, not experimentation.
  • Empirical sciences study real-world phenomena using the inductive method. Natural sciences seek to understand and transform nature, while human sciences explore human behavior, society, language, and history.

Demarcation Problem: Science vs. Pseudoscience

The demarcation problem distinguishes true science from pseudoscience. Two key theories:

  • Verificationism: holds that a scientific statement must be empirically verifiable.
  • Falsificationism (Popper): argues that while theories cannot be definitively verified, they are scientific only if they can be tested and potentially falsified.

Language and Logic

Thought and Natural Language

Natural Language

Natural language is a system of symbols (words) combined according to rules (syntax). We use it to argue, transmit experiences, express emotions, and ask questions. It includes vague and ambiguous concepts.

Functions of Language

Language serves several functions:

  • Representative (or Cognitive) Function: communicates facts that can be true or false.
  • Expressive Function: transmits feelings and emotions.
  • Appellative (or Directive) Function: seeks to provoke a response or action in the receiver.
  • Performative Function: performs an action simply by being pronounced (e.g., “I swear”).

Types of Reasoning

There are two main types of reasoning:

  • Deductive Reasoning: goes from the general to the particular; if the premises are true and the logic valid, the conclusion must be true.
  • Inductive Reasoning: goes from the particular to the general; based on repeated observations, it leads to generalizations, though always with some risk of error.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics: Origins and Core Theories

The word “metaphysics” was first used by Andronicus of Rhodes to refer to Aristotle’s works placed after those on physics. It studies “being as being” (first philosophy). Various theories exist:

  • Realism: claims reality exists independently of our perception.
  • Idealism: says reality depends on the perceiving subject.
  • Materialism: argues reality is entirely material.
  • Spiritualism: posits the existence of an immaterial realm.
  • Mechanism: sees reality as a machine governed by fixed laws, denying purpose.
  • Finalism: holds that humans create meaning through ideas.

Being: Philosophical Perspectives

Early philosophers sought to understand the origin of nature (arché).

Monists and Pluralists

These philosophers believed the origin of nature was physical.

  • Monists: claimed it came from a single substance:
    • Thales (water)
    • Anaximander (apeiron)
    • Anaximenes (air)
    • Heraclitus (fire/change)
    • Parmenides (unchanging Being)
  • Pluralists: believed in multiple elements:
    • Empedocles (four roots – earth, water, air, fire)
    • Democritus (indivisible atoms or “atoma”)

Heraclitus and Parmenides: Change vs. Immutability

These philosophers moved beyond the idea that the first substance is material, focusing instead on change. Parmenides argues that the essence of being is immutability — “something cannot be and not be at the same time,” meaning plurality is absurd and differences are mere appearances. Heraclitus claims that the arché is change itself — “everything flows and nothing remains,” using the river as a metaphor and saying “nobody bathes twice in the same river.” Reality is a constant tension between opposites, resolved by fire.

Plato and Aristotle: Dualism and Substance

Plato develops a dualistic metaphysics with two realms:

  • Sensible World: material, changeable, perceived by the senses.
  • Intelligible World: immaterial, immutable, perceived by the intellect.

Aristotle criticizes the idea of “being” as univocal and explains change through two elements:

  • Substantial Reality: matter + form, unchanging essence.
  • Accidents: various ways the substance manifests.

Essentialism and Existentialism

Essence defines a being; without it, existence fails. There are two types:

  • Real Essence: objective, stable elements.
  • Ideal Essence: exists only in the mind (e.g., Circle, Vampire).

Essentialism: essence precedes existence. Existentialism: humans define essence through freedom.

Spiritualism and Materialism

Spiritualism and Arguments for God’s Existence

Spiritualism comprises theories of an immaterial world linked to the soul. Dualism defends God’s existence with a posteriori arguments, such as Aristotle’s contingency (dependence on others) and St. Thomas Aquinas’s “Five Ways” based on hierarchy and Aristotle’s ideas.

Philosophy of Nature

Philosophy of Nature: Cosmos and Worldviews

Philosophy of Nature seeks to explain the origin and composition of reality and is the predecessor of modern science. It studies the cosmos through a systematic set of beliefs about how groups perceive reality. Initially, mythical explanations involved gods and symbolic beings, then reason introduced scientific explanations based on observation and experimentation. Three key worldviews exist:

  • Ancient (6th century BC to 16th century AD)
  • Modern Scientific Revolution (16th-19th centuries)
  • Contemporary (20th century to today)

Ancient Worldview: Earth, Heaven, and Cosmos

Early theories focused on Earth and Heaven. Earth was first thought flat, later understood as round and the universe’s center with planets revolving around it. Heaven was tied to celestial and religious beliefs. Aristotle divided the cosmos into two worlds:

  • Sublunar: our world, made of water, earth, air, fire.
  • Supralunar: celestial world beyond the moon, made of ether.

Modern Worldview: Scientific Revolution

This era began with the Scientific Revolution, marked by theorists focused on mathematical laws. Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory, placing the sun at the center with Earth revolving around it. Kepler, Brahe, and Bruno expanded on this, but Galileo confirmed it with the telescope and established the law of inertia. Newton introduced gravity, stating all bodies have mass and attract each other.

Contemporary Cosmos-view: Relativity and Quantum

Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity and advanced quantum physics. Heisenberg introduced the uncertainty and indeterminacy principles, showing that measuring one property affects its counterpart, making physics statistical and probabilistic rather than deterministic.

Anthropology

Evolutionary Explanations

  • Darwinism: Species arise through continuous transformations and natural selection; the fittest survive and transmit traits. Humans descended from extinct primates.
  • Theory of Heredity (Mendel): Hereditary traits determined by genes.
  • Neodarwinism/Synthetic Theories: Combination of natural selection and mutationism.
  • Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldredge and Gould): Evolution progresses in bursts, not uniformly, due to large-scale mutations.
  • Influence on the Conception of the Cosmos: Darwinian views influenced Schopenhauer (reality as a struggle for survival and irrational will to survive), Nietzsche (human life as a struggle between irrational wills to power), and Marx (reality as a class struggle).

Hominization Process

  • Morphological Changes:
    • Upright posture (bipedalism)
    • Liberation of upper limbs
    • Brain development
  • Derived Capacities:
    • Technical capacities (manufacturing and using tools)
    • Symbolic capacities (creating and expressing through symbols)

Culture and Humanization

  • Culture: Set of information acquired through social learning. Transmitted through language, allowing for accumulation and adaptation to the environment.
  • Cultural Diversity: Multiplicity of cultures due to human freedom to choose responses, not instincts.

Reactions to Cultural Diversity

  • Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by one’s own values, believing one’s own is superior.
  • Racism: Believing some races are superior to others.
  • Xenophobia: Rejection of foreigners due to difference, often fear.
  • Cultural Relativism: All cultures have internal logic and should not be judged externally.
  • Universalism: Dialogue to extend common values without losing diversity.
  • Interculturalism: Promotes dialogue, tolerance, and coexistence.
  • Globalization: Criticized by some as disguised ethnocentrism that imposes Western culture and homogenizes.

Nature vs. Nurture Debates in Anthropology

Aggression, Genetics, and Altruism

  • Selfish/Violent Stance: Humans are born with a tendency towards violence.
    • Plautus, Hobbes, Freud (death/Thanatos and life/Eros drives), Lorenz (aggression as basic instinct).
    • Hobbes believed in the law of the strongest in a savage state.
  • Good-Natured Stance: Humans are born good, corrupted by society.
    • Rousseau, Eibl-Eibesfeldt (violence results from social injustice).
  • Sociobiology (Edward O. Wilson): Altruistic behaviors are evolutionarily selected for gene survival (genetic altruism).

Determinism and Free Will

  • Determinism: Everything is caused by external factors, with no freedom.
    • Biological Determinism: Behavior guided by genes, hormones, brain.
    • Social Determinism: Behavior is a social product, based on learning.
  • Libertarianism: Despite influences, free will and conscious/rational decisions exist.

Ethics

Ethics as a Philosophical Discipline

Ethics examines criteria for classifying actions. It is based on human freedom and responsibility.

Morality and Ethics Defined

  • Moral: A set of norms based on customs for correct action.
  • Ethics: Rational reflection on those norms and values.

Moral Character, Conscience, Norms, and Values

  • Moral Norm: A rule that conscience considers obligatory due to its value, belonging to the “ought to be”. They have a social dimension (regulate coexistence, laws/customs) and a personal dimension (internalization).
  • Moral Value: A quality that makes actions or attitudes estimable, the origin of norms, and the criterion for correctness. They are polar (have opposites) and ideal in nature (goals).

Ethical Theories

Eudaimonistic Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

  • Aristotle (Eudaimonism): Happiness (supreme good) is not pleasure, wealth, or fame, but the exercise of reason and virtue. Virtue is the “golden mean,” and phronesis (prudence) is key.
  • Hedonism and Epicureanism: Happiness is pleasure (hedone). Epicurus sought lasting pleasures and ataraxia (serenity of soul) through rational calculation of pleasures and pains.
  • Stoicism (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius): Happiness is found in harmony with nature, accepting destiny, and controlling one’s attitude towards the inevitable. Only virtue is good, vice is bad.
  • Utilitarianism (Bentham, Stuart Mill): Happiness lies in the common good. What is right provides the “greatest happiness for the greatest number”. Mill differentiated higher (moral, intellectual) from lower pleasures.

Impartial Ethics: The Pursuit of Justice

  • Ethics of Duty (Kant – Moral Formalism): Universal and formal ethics (without specific content). Acting from duty, not for consequences (categorical imperatives). Norms must be universalizable and treat humanity as an end, never merely as a means.
  • Discourse Ethics (Jürgen Habermas): An ethical norm is valid if it obtains free consensus from all involved through rational dialogue. Requires participation, equal opportunities, no coercion, and pursuit of common interest.
  • The Veil of Ignorance (John Rawls): A hypothetical situation for impartially deciding social norms, without knowing one’s place in society, ensuring basic rights and protection for the disadvantaged.
  • Amoral Morality (Nietzsche): Denies universal moral law, only the law of the strongest. Criticized “slave morality” (Christianity, modern ideologies) as resentment of the weak towards the strong.

Political Philosophy

Political Philosophy: Seeking the Common Good

Political philosophy is the art of living in society (polis) seeking the common good.

Common Good vs. Individual Good

  • Individual Good: for one person.
  • Common Good: enjoyed by all (e.g., peace, justice). For Aristotle, the common good is the supreme science, and the polis is where humans achieve perfection.

Human Sociability: Nature vs. Interest

  • By Nature (Aristotle): Humans need others for full development.
  • By Interest (Hobbes, Freud): Humans are egoistic and see others as rivals; society arises from a “social contract” to ensure peace and survival.

The Concept of the State

According to Machiavelli, the State is a political organization with permanent, exclusive power over a territory, with institutions to ensure order and stability.

  • Characteristics:
    • Territorial power
    • Sovereignty (supreme power)
    • Maintenance of order

Necessity and Origin of the State

  • Anarchism (Bakunin): The State is unnecessary, an instrument of oppression.
  • Majority Stance: The State is necessary to avoid chaos and ensure the common good.
  • Contractualist Theories (17th Century): Explain the origin of the State as a hypothetical “social contract” between a state of nature (no laws) and an organized state (with laws).
    • Thomas Hobbes: From a state of nature (total freedom, war), all rights are ceded to an absolute sovereign for peace (authoritarian State).
    • John Locke: Humans have natural rights; they partially cede power to rulers to protect them. If rulers fail, the people can remove them. Advocated for representative democracy and separation of powers.
    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Humans are good in a natural state, corrupted by society. Direct democracy arises from the “general will” through a contract.
    • John Stuart Mill: The State is a necessary evil, limiting freedom only to prevent harm to others (harm principle).

Forms of State

  • Authoritarian State: Power exercised without limits or controls.
    • Absolutist: Monarch rules without restrictions, traditional/divine legitimacy.
    • Totalitarian: Controls all aspects of life, ideological, suppresses the individual.
  • Rule of Law: Power subject to law, protects individual rights. Pillars: Constitution and separation of powers (Montesquieu: Executive, Legislative, Judiciary).
  • Social Rule of Law: Corrects inequalities and guarantees social rights (welfare).

Legitimacy of the State (Max Weber)

Weber distinguished between the capacity to impose will (power) and the legitimate right to command (authority). Types of legitimation:

  • Traditional: Based on custom (“it has always been this way”).
  • Charismatic: Based on exceptional qualities of the leader.
  • Rational-Legal: Based on rationally approved and socially accepted laws.

Conceptions of the State

  • Origin of Democracy (Athens): Direct, but with limitations (no women, metics, slaves) and susceptible to manipulation by demagogues.
  • Sophists: Masters of oratory, advocated relativism (no absolute truth) and conventionalism (norms by agreement).
  • Plato: Opposed Athenian democracy, believing only the philosopher (who knows justice) should rule.
  • Birth of Modern Political Science (Machiavelli): Revolutionized politics by focusing on acquiring and maintaining power, separating it from morality. Object of study is the State as a human creation; experimental method; based on the egoistic nature of humans. The prince must be cunning (“lion and fox”).