Foundational Concepts in Sociology
Sociology: An Introduction
Sociology is the intellectual discipline concerned with developing reliable and systematic knowledge about social relationships and their outcomes.
Object of Sociology
Sociologists study human society and social behavior through the examination of groups that people form. These groups include families, communities, governments, social organizations, and religious and political associations. Sociologists also investigate how these groups originate and continue to evolve.
Sociology as a Science
- A science is a body of knowledge that is organized, verified, and confirmed by scientific research.
- A science employs a systematic method of study.
Positivism: Key Features
- Only one method is applicable to all sciences.
- Knowledge is inductive, derived from specific observations to general principles.
- Positivism values documented evidence and empirical interpretations.
- The only valid knowledge is scientific knowledge.
- All philosophical and scientific activities must be based on an analysis of facts verified by experience.
Auguste Comte’s Vision
Comte held a positivist view, believing that humanity can acquire knowledge through science and, consequently, through the scientific method.
- Scientific observation is accurate and precise.
Scientific Inquiry Steps
The scientific method of inquiry typically involves the following steps:
- Defining the problem
- Conducting a literature review
- Formulating hypotheses
- Planning the research design
- Collecting and analyzing data
- Conducting case studies
- Drawing conclusions
- Repeating the study (if necessary)
Comte’s Societal Pyramid
Comte envisioned society structured in a pyramid:
- Top: Ideas and values
- Middle: Social institutions (e.g., political, religious, educational, family) and infrastructure
- Bottom: Technology, productive forces, and production relations
Comte’s Three Stages of Knowledge
Auguste Comte held a very strict vision regarding the meaning, purpose, and usefulness of science for human life and the universe itself. He posited that the branches of human knowledge pass through three stages, or what he called “different theoretical states”:
- Theological Stage: The human spirit seeks ultimate causes and finds answers in the “direct action of supernatural agents whose intervention explains all the apparent anomalies of the universe.”
- Positive Stage: Comte concludes that in this third stage, humanity abandons the search for ultimate causes, and answers that are not verifiable become meaningless.
Social Statics
The fundamental law of social statics is “order,” which is achieved through universal consensus, solidarity, and a balanced division of labor. Society is viewed as an organism where each part performs a specific function that, when complemented by others, ensures the whole’s life and continuity.
Karl Marx and Marxism
Karl Marx’s theories on society, economy, and politics, collectively known as Marxism, argue that all societies progress through the dialectic of class struggle. Marx was highly critical of capitalism, the prevailing socio-economic form of his time, which he termed the “dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.” He asserted that capitalism was operated by the wealthy upper and middle classes for their own profit.
Marx predicted that, like previous socio-economic systems, capitalism would inevitably produce internal tensions leading to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system: socialism. He argued that under socialism, society would be governed by the working class in what he called the “dictatorship of the proletariat,” the “workers’ state,” or “workers’ democracy.”
He believed that socialism, in turn, would eventually be replaced by a stateless, classless society: pure communism. Alongside his belief in the inevitability of socialism and communism, Marx actively advocated for the implementation of the former, arguing that social theorists and disadvantaged people should undertake organized revolutionary action to overthrow capitalism and achieve socio-economic change.