Foundational Concepts in Psychology and Neuroscience

Posted on Jan 9, 2026 in Psychology and Sociology

Chapter 1: Psychological Perspectives and Research Methods

Major Schools of Thought

  • Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener): Identify the basic structures of the conscious mind.
  • Functionalism (James, Darwin): Describe how conscious minds adapt to an environment.
  • Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud): Understand how unconscious thoughts cause psychological disorders.
  • Gestalt Psychology (Wertheimer, Kohler): Study subjective perceptions as a unified whole.
  • Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner): Describe behavior response to environmental stimuli.
  • Humanistic Psychology (Maslow, Rogers): Investigate how people become happier, focusing on the basic goodness of people.
  • Cognitive Psychology (Miller, Neisser): Explore internal mental processes that influence behavior.

Research Terminology

Correlational vs. Experimental Studies: Experimental studies allow the researcher to control the variables in the study, while correlational ones involve just looking at the data that already exists.

  • Descriptive Statistics: Statistics that describe the results of a research study in a concise fashion.
  • Inferential Statistics: Statistics that allow researchers to draw conclusions about the results of a study by determining the probability the results are due to random variation (chance).

Experimental Biases and Variables

Potential issues include the Hawthorne Effect (efficiency increases when being observed), Observer Bias, and Self-report Bias.

In an experiment:

  • Independent Variable (e.g., alcohol consumption).
  • Dependent Variable (e.g., driving skills).
  • Control Group (e.g., non-alcoholic group).
  • Experimental Group (e.g., alcoholic group).

Standard Deviation (Measures the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values).

Chapter 2: The Biological Basis of Behavior

Neural Communication

  1. Transmission: Communication begins when there is enough motivation in the presynaptic neuron. The Action Potential travels down the myelinated axon to the terminal buttons.
  2. Reception: The Action Potential causes neurotransmitters to be released from the terminal buttons. Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and fit into receptors in the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron.
  3. Integration: Each neurotransmitter has excitatory or inhibitory effects on the postsynaptic neuron. These effects sum up, potentially leading to another Action Potential.

Key Neurotransmitters

  • Acetylcholine: Motor control, attention, memory, sleeping.
  • Norepinephrine: Arousal, alertness.
  • Serotonin: Emotional states.
  • Dopamine: Reward & motivation, voluntary movement.
  • GABA: Inhibition of Action Potentials.
  • Glutamate: Enhancement of Action Potentials, learning & memory.
  • Endorphin: Pain reduction, reward.

Brain Imaging Techniques

  • EEG: Measures electrical activity.
  • fMRI: Measures function, structure, and density.
  • PET: Measures function.
  • TMS: Disrupts activity in a specific brain part.

Major Brain Structures

Hindbrain and Midbrain

  • Medulla: Breathing, heart rate.
  • Pons: Sleep, arousal, body movement coordination.
  • Cerebellum: Motor learning, coordination, balance.

Forebrain Structures

  • Thalamus: Sensory information relay (smell excluded).
  • Hypothalamus: Regulation of body functions (e.g., temperature) and motivation (e.g., hunger).
  • Hippocampus: Formation of new memories.
  • Amygdala: Processing emotions associated with experiences.
  • Basal Ganglia: Motor planning, movement, reward.

Cerebral Lobes

  • Occipital Lobe: Vision.
  • Parietal Lobe: Touch.
  • Temporal Lobe: Hearing, memory.
  • Frontal Lobe: Planning, movement, complex thinking.

Nervous and Endocrine Systems

The nervous system includes the Somatic and Autonomic nervous systems.

Endocrine System Glands

  • Pineal Gland: Governs bodily rhythms.
  • Pituitary Gland: Master gland, governs hormone release.
  • Thyroid: Controls how the body burns energy.
  • Adrenal Glands: Influence the immune system.
  • Ovaries: Influence sexual development and behavior of females.
  • Testes: Influence sexual development and behavior of males.

Chapter 3: Consciousness and Sleep

The Nature of Consciousness

  • Dualism: Mind and brain are individual entities.
  • Materialism: Mind and brain are one.
  • Subliminal Perception: Cognition occurring unconsciously.
  • Global Workspace Model: No single area of the brain is responsible for general awareness.
  • Corpus Callosum: Connection between the left and right brain (often severed in severe epilepsy cases).

Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Cycles

Circadian Rhythm: Eye $\rightarrow$ Hypothalamus $\rightarrow$ Pineal Gland (controls melatonin).

Sleep Stages

  • Stage 1: Theta waves, possibility of denying sleep, fantastical images, limb jerking.
  • Stage 2: Breathing becomes regular, less sensitive to external stimuli, characterized by K-complexes.
  • Stage 3 & 4 (Slow-Wave Sleep): Delta waves, difficult to wake, essential for maintaining awareness of danger.
  • REM Sleep: Active brain, muscle paralysis, bizarre dreams (80% of dreaming occurs here).

Dream Theories

  • Manifest Content: The visual image of the dream remembered by the dreamer.
  • Latent Content: The underlying meaning behind the manifest content (e.g., flying might mean escaping reality).
  • Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams are caused by random neuron firing during sleep, activating random sights and sounds, which the cortex attempts to synthesize into a narrative.

Benefits of Sleep

  1. Restorative Theory: Sleep allows for rest and repair.
  2. Circadian Rhythm Theory: Sleep keeps creatures quiet during the dark when threats are highest; small, non-vulnerable animals sleep more.
  3. Consolidation: Circuits wired together during waking periods are strengthened during sleep.

Sleep Disorders

  • Insomnia
  • Sleep Apnea (cessation of breathing during sleep)
  • Narcolepsy (sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks)
  • Somnambulism (sleepwalking)
  • REM Behavior Disorder (acting out dreams)

Psychoactive Drugs

  • Stimulants: Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine.
  • Depressants: Benzodiazepines, alcohol.
  • Opiates: Heroin, morphine, codeine.
  • Hallucinogenics: LSD, MDMA, marijuana.