Foundational Concepts in Political and Social Theory
Max Weber: Science, Politics, and Modernity
“Science as a Vocation”
- Institutionalization of sciences.
- Progress of knowledge leads to specialization.
“The Disenchantment of the World”
This concept posits the logical premise that there are no mysterious forces; all things are explicable and subject to technical mastery. It results in the dissolution of meaning, where values are no longer central to the experience of society. The modern predicament involves seeking modes of retreat or re-enchantment.
“Politics as a Vocation”
Weber defines a political ethic resting on the political personality, characterized by the interaction of vanity and political power, requiring:
- Realistic passion.
- Sense of responsibility.
- Detached judgment.
He discusses the pluralization of value spheres: the ethical is not universally applicable to all areas of life and relations, arguing against moral absolutism. He identifies two modes of leadership:
- Ethic of intentions (or “conviction”).
- Ethic of responsibility.
Horkheimer and Adorno: Dialectic of Enlightenment
Their work is rooted in a commitment to the ideal of a free and rational society. Their social theory aims at a critical understanding of all spheres of human action.
The Entwinement of Enlightenment and Myth
The promise of reason—that the aim of enlightenment is liberation from myth—results in an ironic outcome: Nature becomes nothing other than an object of domination, leading to estrangement through instrumental reason.
The Culture Industry
Instrumental reason is expressed powerfully in mass culture. Key characteristics include:
- Escapism offered by mass entertainment functions as mere ideology, habituating us to our unfreedom.
- Homogeneity and repetition dominate.
- The audience is reduced to passive consumers, experiencing “pseudo-individuality.”
This represents the colonization of the space that promised happiness as non-instrumental existence.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Discourse on the Origin of Inequality
Rousseau breaks with the traditional social contract theory, arguing that government is not an improvement on the state of nature and that the existing social contract is illegitimate.
Human Nature and Instincts
Human nature is defined as “perfectible,” with sentiments preceding reason. Innate human instincts include:
- Impulse toward self-preservation.
- Pity.
The Four Stages of Inequality
- Stage 1: Atomistic Existences. Individuals are self-sufficient (desires equal abilities). There is no language, reason, or morality. Social inequality is absent due to minimal interaction and the lack of ability to make comparisons.
- Stage 2: Temporary Collaborations. Humans begin to take an interest in each other, forming temporary groups for specific collaborative tasks (e.g., hunting). Rudimentary language, reason, and pride emerge.
- Stage 3: Nascent Society. Described as “the happiest and most lasting epoch.” The establishment of family, huts, and property leads to conjugal and paternal love, which in turn introduces jealousy, preference, and the beginnings of amour propre (self-esteem/vanity).
- Stage 4: Division of Labor and Social Stratification. Driven by amour propre, agriculture and metallurgy lead to fixed inequalities and a state of war. The final state of inequality is political slavery.
Shoshana Zuboff: The Age of Surveillance Capitalism
Zuboff’s work draws on important political theory references, including concepts like individuals as “ends in themselves,” the “state of exception,” and the “Übermensch.”
From Behavioral Surplus to Surveillance Capitalism
Google is characterized as the Ford Motor Company of our current stage of capitalism. The dot-com crash served as a “state of exception,” leading to the subordination of the Behavioral Value Reinvestment Cycle (BVIC) to the extraction and selling of behavioral surplus.
Political Theoretical Implications
- The moral threat posed to our subjecthood.
- Use of the genealogical method to uncover contingency.
- Parallels to Rousseau regarding the staying power and unintended consequences of tools invented under specific circumstances; advertising is not the ultimate goal.
Hannah Arendt: Totalitarianism, Truth, and Responsibility
Arendt on Truth and Politics
- Distinction between rational truths (mathematical, scientific, philosophical) versus factual truths.
- The inherent tension between politics and truth.
- Comparison of traditional versus modern political lies.
- Policing the boundary between truth and politics requires protecting independent institutions: the judiciary, universities, and journalism.
Arendt on Lying in Politics (Referencing The Pentagon Papers, 1971)
- Two modern varieties of lying: the image makers and the professional problem-solvers.
- The danger of self-deception in a “defactualized world.”
- The pitfalls of “thinking” without judging.
How Totalitarianism Works (Origins of Totalitarianism, 1951)
Totalitarianism is an unprecedented modern form of government that:
- Treats humans not as free individual agents, but as fulfilling suprahuman forces in motion (e.g., laws of nature, laws of History).
- Molds subjects through terror and ideology.
- Is made possible by loneliness.
Personal Responsibility Under Evil Regimes (Eichmann in Jerusalem, 1963)
Arendt addresses objections raised regarding Eichmann’s defense (“Who am I to judge?”, the “cog-theory”). She stresses the importance of passing judgment on individual guilt. Key distinctions:
- Personal versus political responsibility.
- Obeying the law is not the same as acting morally.
Learning from those who were not culpable involves judging for oneself and recognizing the possibility of refusal.
George Orwell: Politics and the English Language
Orwell on Language and Political Health
Orwell operates on the assumption that habits of language influence the quality of thought, which in turn affects the health of politics. His critique focuses on:
- “Prefabricated,” “ready-made” language that conceals meaning both from others and from oneself.
- The political exploitation of unclear language.
- The responsibility of individuals to use precise language.
Contemporary Political Theory and Critique
Linda Zerilli: Fact-Checking and Truth-Telling
Zerilli examines the limits of fact-checking, noting the shift from the age of the deliberate lie to the age of “alternative facts.”
- She echoes Arendt on the importance of factual truths for a shared reality, or “the common world.”
- She contrasts Michel Foucault’s analytics of truth with the critical tradition.
- She argues for moving beyond mere fact-checking toward truth-telling as a vital practice.
Judith Shklar: The Liberalism of Fear
Shklar aims to rescue liberalism by defining its limits. Liberalism, she argues, is aimed at securing political conditions that allow for individual freedom, which is only possible if citizens are free from fear. This involves “putting cruelty first” and establishing the fear of cruelty as a moral baseline.
Tamsin Shaw: Schmittian Ideas in Modern Politics
In her analysis of “William Barr: The Carl Schmitt of Our Time,” Shaw highlights the contemporary embrace of Schmittian ideas:
- Unchecked executive power.
- Decisionism.
- Thinking crudely in terms of friends and enemies.
Her work serves as a rejection of and warning about the seductiveness of Schmittian concepts.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s Nobel Lecture
Solzhenitsyn addresses the problem of disparate benchmarks of values in a world that has become unified, emphasizing the crucial task of literature and art in addressing this challenge.
Casey Williams: Saving Critique in the Post-Truth Era
Williams challenges the idea of truth, noting that skepticism is common to both the critical tradition in philosophy and “post-truth” politics. She stresses the urgency of maintaining a distinction: critical thinking about truth and facts does not equate to “anything goes.” Her goal is saving critique from misuse.