Forms of Political Organization and Systems
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Political System and Its Elements
1. The Political System and Its Study
Forms of political expression refer to the diverse ways humans have organized their political life throughout history. These forms of political organization, comparable (with reservations) to the political system, encompass a broad spectrum of structures and processes.
Political science, as a modern discipline with its own sphere, object, specific methods, and differentiation, emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It adopted an inductive approach based on observation and measurement, focusing on new themes such as power relations, political behavior of citizens and elites, attitudes, opinions, and political processes.
Over time, various currents of thought have influenced how political science approaches its elusive and polysemous (multiple meanings) object of knowledge.
The notion of a political system originates from systems theory, developed in sociology through the work of Talcott Parsons. In the 1950s, David Easton introduced this paradigm to political science, moving away from the Parsonian conception that viewed the political arena as a subsystem of society. Easton (1973) proposed a conceptual orientation grounded in an integrated set of categories, allowing for the empirical interpretation of political life as a system of conduct. The aim was to study how a system persists within its given political environment and reacts to influences and tensions.
A political system endures by fulfilling two basic functions: assigning values within a society and ensuring that most members accept these allocations as binding, at least most of the time.
The political system exists within a real environment (total ambient) crucial for its survival. This environment exerts various influences, tensions, and disturbances, prompting reactions from the system. Easton’s analysis categorizes these influences as inputs (support for the political system and its authorities, if positive, and demands, if negative). The system, in turn, responds to these influences through outputs, such as binding decisions and policies, which further impact the environment, leading to new inputs.
This circular process highlights the criticality of information feedback for authorities. Understanding the effects of their decisions and reactions, manifested as new inputs, is essential for formulating adequate responses.
Studying this feedback loop helps explain how the political system copes with stress and reacts with new outputs, maintaining a level of support above the minimum necessary for its survival.
2. Form of Government and Political System
The expression “form of government” has been used in various ways but now generally denotes the relationship between parliament and government in contemporary democratic regimes. This distinction primarily differentiates between parliamentary and presidential systems, with the semi-presidential model as a variant of the latter.
Parliamentary Systems
Parliamentary systems are characterized by a single institution (parliament) deriving legitimacy through direct election by citizens. The elected parliament determines the prime minister, who remains dependent on the confidence of the house. The prime minister, in turn, can typically dissolve parliament and call for new elections. This dynamic highlights the close connection between the executive and legislative branches and the blurred separation of powers in parliamentary systems.
In parliamentary systems, the government and parliament work closely. The government requires parliamentary support for decision-making due to its dependence on the legislature. Congress, in turn, considers and approves government-proposed laws alongside proposals from its members. This dependence is further reflected in parliament’s control over the government through various mechanisms, ranging from written questions to the prime minister to full house debates and votes of no confidence.
Collective cabinet membership is another characteristic of parliamentary systems. The prime minister, having secured the confidence of parliament, typically appoints ministers to the cabinet. While the prime minister holds a prominent role, responsibility remains collective.
In most parliamentary systems, the head of state plays a largely symbolic role, primarily serving as an arbitrator and mediator between the executive and legislative branches.
Presidential Systems
Presidential systems feature two powers with direct legitimacy: the parliament (legislative function) and the president (executive function), both elected separately by citizens. A clear separation of powers exists. Consequently, there are no parliamentary control mechanisms over the president, and the president cannot dissolve Congress or call new elections. The president has full authority to appoint government members, who sometimes act solely as advisors, as the president bears sole responsibility for policy decisions before the electorate.
The dual sources of legitimacy and distinct designation mechanisms can lead to scenarios where the parliamentary majority and the president belong to different political persuasions. This can cause institutional gridlock, often resolved by the preeminence of parliament in vetoing legislative measures.