Forest Society and Colonialism: A History of Deforestation and Resistance
Forest Society and Colonialism
The Disappearing Forests
Diversity in forests has been disappearing rapidly. Between 1700 and 1995, a staggering 13.9 million square kilometers of forest were cleared, representing 9.3% of the world’s total forest area. This deforestation, driven by industrial uses, cultivation, pasture, and fuelwood, began centuries ago but intensified during the colonial period.
The Impact of Colonial Rule on Forest Cover
Colonizers worldwide believed uncultivated land should be exploited for commercial gain. The demand for commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton surged due to Europe’s growing population and industrialization. In India, cultivated land increased by 6.7 million hectares between 1880 and 1920.
The British and Indian Forests
The depletion of oak forests in England by the early 20th century threatened Britain’s shipbuilding industry. They turned to India’s forests for timber, leading to large-scale deforestation. The expansion of railways from the 1850s further fueled the demand for timber, with each mile of track requiring 1,760 to 2,000 sleepers.
Plantations and the Rise of Scientific Forestry
The British established vast plantations for tea, coffee, and rubber, clearing large areas of forest. To manage these resources, they appointed Dietrich Brandis as India’s first Inspector General of Forests. Brandis introduced scientific forestry, training individuals in conservation and establishing the Indian Forest Service in 1864. The Indian Forest Act of 1865 regulated forest use, making grazing, felling trees, and utilizing forest produce illegal.
The Impact of the Forest Act
The Forest Act, amended in 1878 and 1927, categorized forests into reserved, protected, and village forests. This restricted access for local communities who relied on forests for food, medicine, and firewood, forcing them to resort to stealing wood and facing harassment from forest guards.
Shifting Cultivation and its Prohibition
Shifting cultivation, a traditional practice of clearing small patches of land for farming, was deemed harmful by colonial officials. They feared accidental fires and the difficulty in collecting revenue from shifting cultivators, leading to its ban. This had devastating consequences for many families, forcing them into low-paying jobs or migration to cities.
Hunting Restrictions and the Elite
While tribal communities relied on hunting for sustenance, the colonial government banned it. However, Indian Rajas and British officials continued to hunt, viewing it as a symbol of bravery and a means to control dangerous animals.
New Opportunities and Exploitation
The burgeoning trade in forest products primarily benefited the British and some Indian merchants. Forest dwellers saw limited opportunities and often faced exploitation. Many were forced to work in the harsh conditions of Assam and West Bengal’s tea gardens.
The People of Bastar and Their Resistance
A Life Intertwined with the Forest
The diverse tribal communities of Bastar, located in present-day Chhattisgarh, held a deep reverence for the forests they depended on.
The Fears and the Rebellion
The reservation of two-thirds of the forest and the restrictions on traditional practices sparked unrest among the people of Bastar. Forced labor, displacement, and the famines of 1899-1900 and 1907-1908 fueled their discontent. The Dhurwas, led by figures like Gunda Dhur, initiated a rebellion in 1910, looting, burning, and resisting British control. The rebellion, though brutally suppressed, forced the British to reduce the reserved forest area, marking a significant victory for the rebels.
Forest Transformation in Java
The Dutch and the Kalangs
In Java, a Dutch colony, the Kalangs, skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators, played a vital role in the local economy. The Dutch sought to control them and their expertise, leading to resistance and a suppressed rebellion in 1770.
Dutch Scientific Forestry and its Impact
The Dutch implemented strict forest laws, restricting villagers’ access and imposing regulations on woodcutting and grazing. Large-scale logging fueled the demand for railways and shipping. The Blandongdiensten system forced villagers to provide free labor and buffalo in exchange for limited forest access.
Samin’s Challenge
Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village challenged state ownership of the forest, inspiring a movement of passive resistance. His followers refused to pay taxes, perform labor, or cooperate with Dutch surveys.
War and Deforestation
The World Wars intensified deforestation as demand for timber soared. The Dutch employed a”scorched eart” policy in Java before the Japanese occupation, destroying valuable resources. The Japanese continued the exploitation, forcing villagers to cut down forests, which ironically allowed some to expand their cultivated land.