Forensic Medicine & Toxicology: Death, Poisons, Antidotes

Posted on Sep 26, 2025 in Economic Sciences

Thanatology: Understanding Death and Postmortem Changes

Thanatology is the science that deals with death and the changes produced in the body after death.

Definition of Death

Death is the permanent cessation of vital functions, including circulation, respiration, and brain activity.

Types of Death

• Somatic Death: Irreversible stoppage of circulation, respiration, and brain functions.
• Molecular Death: Cessation of cellular metabolism, occurring after somatic death.

Modes of Death

• Coma
• Syncope
• Asphyxia

Signs of Death

Early Signs

• Immediate Signs: Cessation of heartbeat, respiration, and reflexes.
• Algor Mortis: Cooling of the body.
• Rigor Mortis: Stiffening of muscles due to ATP depletion.
• Livor Mortis (Postmortem Hypostasis): Bluish-purple discoloration due to settling of blood.
• Primary Relaxation: Flaccidity of muscles.

Late Signs

• Putrefaction: Greenish discoloration, gas formation, and bloating.
• Adipocere Formation: Wax-like change of fat in a moist environment.
• Mummification: Drying and preservation of the body in hot/dry air.

Medicolegal Autopsy and Exhumation

Autopsy

An autopsy is a postmortem examination of a body to ascertain the cause of death.

Types of Autopsy

• Medicolegal Autopsy: Ordered by police or magistrate, performed in suspicious, sudden, or unnatural deaths.
• Clinical Autopsy: Conducted for academic or medical purposes.

Objectives of Medicolegal Autopsy

• Determine the cause, mode, manner, and time since death.
• Preserve viscera for chemical analysis.
• Collect evidence (e.g., bullets, poison, injuries).

Exhumation

Exhumation is the lawful digging out of a buried body for medicolegal investigation.

• Authority: Only on a magistrate’s written order.
• Time Limit: No legal time bar; a body may be exhumed at any time, but the chances of useful evidence decrease with delay.

The Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act (THOTA), 1994

(Amended 2011, 2014)

Purpose of THOTA

To regulate the removal, storage, and transplantation of human organs and tissues for therapeutic purposes, and to prevent commercial dealings.

Salient Features of THOTA

• Defines brainstem death as legal death for organ donation.
• Authorization committee approval is mandatory in non-near relative donations.
• Living donation is allowed only by near relatives (spouse, parents, siblings, children, grandparents, grandchildren).
• Commercial trade of organs is banned, with punishment including imprisonment (5–10 years) and a fine.
• Hospitals must be registered as transplant centers.
• Mandatory maintenance of a waiting list and transparency in allocation.

Asphyxial Deaths: Causes and Types

Asphyxial deaths refer to a condition caused by interference with respiration, leading to the failure of cells to receive or utilize oxygen.

Causes of Asphyxial Death

• Cerebral hypoxia
• Accumulation of CO₂
• Cardiac arrest

Types of Asphyxia

• Hanging
• Strangulation and Suffocation
• Drowning

Hanging

Hanging is death due to the suspension of the body by a ligature around the neck, constricting it by the weight of the body.

Types of Hanging

• Judicial
• Suicidal (mostly suicidal)

Mechanism of Death in Hanging

• Obstruction of airway and vessels
• Cerebral anoxia
• Vagal inhibition

Postmortem Findings in Hanging

• Ligature mark: oblique, non-continuous, above the thyroid cartilage.
• Dribbling of saliva.
• Congestion, cyanosis, petechial hemorrhages.
• Fracture of hyoid/thyroid cartilage (more common in older age).

Strangulation and Suffocation

Strangulation

Strangulation is the constriction of the neck by a ligature or hands without suspension of the body.

Types of Strangulation

• Ligature strangulation (e.g., homicidal)
• Manual strangulation (throttling)

Postmortem Findings in Strangulation

• Ligature mark: transverse, continuous, below the thyroid cartilage.
• Bruising of neck muscles.
• Fracture of hyoid/thyroid cartilage is common.
• Manner of death: mostly homicidal.

Suffocation

Suffocation is the prevention of air entry into the respiratory tract by mechanical means.

Forms of Suffocation

• Smothering: Blockage of mouth and nose.
• Choking: Internal obstruction by food or a foreign body.
• Traumatic Asphyxia: Thoracic compression.
• Suffocating gases.

Postmortem Findings in Suffocation

• Congestion, cyanosis, petechial hemorrhages.
• Injuries around the mouth/nose in smothering.

Drowning

Drowning is asphyxia due to the aspiration of fluid into the air passages.

Types of Drowning

• Wet drowning
• Dry drowning (vagal inhibition)
• Secondary drowning (delayed death due to pulmonary edema)
• Near drowning

Mechanism of Death in Drowning

• Asphyxia
• Vagal inhibition
• Hemodilution and electrolyte imbalance

Postmortem Findings in Drowning

• Fine white froth at the mouth and nostrils.
• Overdistended lungs (“emphysema aquosum”).
• Water and weeds in air passages or stomach.
• Cutis anserina (goose-skin).
• Washerwoman’s hands and feet (skin wrinkling).

Ayurvedic Toxicology: Visha (Poisons)

Luta Visha (Insect Poison)

Source: Poison of insects like spiders, centipedes, bees, wasps, mosquitoes, gadflies, etc.

Lakshana (Symptoms)

• तीव्र वेदना (Severe pain)
• शोफ (Swelling)
• कण्डू (Itching)
• उष्णता (Heat sensation)
• Systemic reactions: Nausea, giddiness, difficulty in breathing.

Chikitsa (Treatment)

• Local cleaning, lepa (poultice) with cooling dravyas (substances).
• Internal use of Tikta–Kashaya rasa drugs.
• Modern terms: Antihistamines, corticosteroids, adrenaline in severe allergy.

Luta Visha Symptoms Over 7 Days

1. प्रथम दिन (Day 1): अल्प कण्डु, कोठ, अव्यक्त वर्ण (Mild itching, rashes, indistinct discoloration).
2. दूसरा दिन (Day 2): परिधि शोफ और मध्य भाग में गति, अव्यक्त रूप (Peripheral swelling with central movement, indistinct appearance).
3. तीसरा दिन (Day 3): स्पष्ट रूप (Clear manifestation).
4. चौथा दिन (Day 4): विष प्रकोप (Exacerbation of poison).
5. पाँचवा दिन (Day 5): विष प्रकोप के सर्वदाहिक लक्षण (Systemic burning symptoms of poison exacerbation).
6. छठवा दिन (Day 6): मर्म आवृत्त (Vital points affected).
7. सातवां दिन (Day 7): मृत्यु (Death).

Vrishchika Visha (Scorpion Poison)

Source: Scorpion sting.

Lakshana (Symptoms)

• तीव्र वेदना (Severe pain)
• शोफ (Swelling)
• स्पर्शासह्यता (Tenderness to touch)
• Systemic: Sweating, salivation, tachycardia, dyspnea, convulsions, shock in severe stings.

Chikitsa (Treatment)

• Local application of Ghrita (ghee), Snigdha lepa (unctuous poultice).
• Internal use of Sheeta virya dravyas (cooling substances).
• Modern: Analgesics, antihistamines, calcium gluconate, prazosin in severe cases.

Types of Scorpion Poison (Vrishchika Visha)

Alarka Visha (Rabies)

Source: Bite of a rabid dog (Alarka).

Lakshana (Symptoms)

• अत्यन्त भय (Extreme fear)
• तृष्णा (Thirst)
• ज्वर (Fever)
• भ्रम (Delusion/Confusion)
• जलभय (Hydrophobia)
• वातज विकार (Vata disorders)

Chikitsa (Treatment)

• Agada (antitoxic formulations)
• Mantra (incantations), Rakshoghna karma (protective rituals)
• Utkleśana and Shodhana therapies mentioned.
• Symptomatic management with Sheeta dravyas (cooling substances).

Contemporary Relevance: Rabies

• Alarka Visha is equivalent to Rabies in modern medicine.
• Cause: Rabies virus (Rhabdoviridae family).
• Features:
  • Furious form: Hydrophobia, aerophobia, hypersalivation, convulsions.
  • Paralytic form: Progressive paralysis leading to coma and death.
• Management:
  • Immediate wound cleaning with soap and water.
  • Rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) infiltration around the wound.
  • Rabies vaccination (cell culture vaccine) as per WHO protocol.
  • No curative treatment once symptoms appear; almost always fatal.

Common Plant Poisons and Their Effects

Vatsanabha

• Synonyms: Visha, Garal, Bish.
• Botanical Name: Aconitum ferox (Family: Ranunculaceae).
• Type of Poison: Alkaloid (Aconitine) – Cardiac and Neurotoxic.
• Ayurvedic Properties: Rasa – Tikta, Katu; Guna – Laghu, Tikshna; Virya – Ushna; Vipaka – Katu.
• Part Used: Root tuber.
• Medical Dose: 15–30 mg (after shodhana/purification).
• Fatal Dose: 1–2 g root / 3–4 mg aconitine.
• Fatal Period: 1–8 hours.
• Clinical Features: Tingling, numbness, burning, vomiting, arrhythmia, dyspnea, convulsions, death due to cardiac/respiratory arrest.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage with KMnO₄, tannic acid, atropine, artificial respiration, symptomatic cardiac support.
• Postmortem: Congested viscera, red patches in stomach, brain, and lungs congestion.

Karavira

• Synonyms: Karavira, Arka-pushpa.
• Botanical Name: Nerium oleander / Thevetia peruviana.
• Type of Poison: Cardiac glycosides (Oleandrin, Thevetin).
• Ayurvedic Properties: Rasa – Tikta, Kashaya; Guna – Laghu, Tikshna; Virya – Ushna; Vipaka – Katu.
• Part Used: Root, leaves, seeds.
• Medical Dose: Seeds avoided; leaves (few mg) sometimes in folk medicine.
• Fatal Dose: 15–20 seeds / 15 g root.
• Fatal Period: 3–36 hours.
• Clinical Features: Vomiting, abdominal pain, bradycardia, arrhythmia, collapse.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage with activated charcoal, atropine, lidocaine, cardiac monitoring.
• Postmortem: Congestion of viscera, petechiae in heart, subendocardial hemorrhage.

Digitalis

• Botanical Name: Digitalis purpurea (Family: Scrophulariaceae).
• Type of Poison: Cardiac glycosides (Digitoxin, Digoxin).
• Part Used: Leaves.
• Fatal Dose: 2–3 g leaves.
• Clinical Features: Nausea, vomiting, yellow vision (xanthopsia), arrhythmias.
• Treatment: Atropine, phenytoin/lidocaine, Digibind (antibody).
• Postmortem: Congested organs, heart dilatation.

Tobacco

• Botanical Name: Nicotiana tabacum.
• Type of Poison: Nicotine alkaloid – Cardiac and Neurotoxic.
• Part Used: Leaves, seeds.
• Fatal Dose: 1 g nicotine / 20 cigarettes.
• Fatal Period: Few minutes to hours.
• Clinical Features: Salivation, nausea, vomiting, giddiness, convulsions, paralysis of respiration.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage with tannic acid, artificial respiration, atropine.
• Postmortem: Congested viscera, odor of nicotine.

Cerbera odollam

• Botanical Name: Cerbera odollam.
• Type of Poison: Cardiac glycoside (Cerberin).
• Part Used: Kernel of fruit.
• Fatal Dose: 1 kernel.
• Fatal Period: 1–2 days.
• Clinical Features: Vomiting, diarrhea, arrhythmia, hypotension.
• Treatment: Activated charcoal, atropine, cardiac monitoring.
• Postmortem: Congested stomach, characteristic almond-like kernel found.

Kupilu

• Synonyms: Vishatindu, Kupilu.
• Botanical Name: Strychnos nux-vomica.
• Type of Poison: Alkaloids (Strychnine, Brucine).
• Ayurvedic Properties: Rasa – Tikta, Katu; Guna – Laghu, Tikshna; Virya – Ushna; Vipaka – Katu.
• Part Used: Seeds.
• Medical Dose: 1–2 mg alkaloid (after shodhana/purification).
• Fatal Dose: 15–30 seeds / 100 mg strychnine.
• Fatal Period: 1–2 hours.
• Clinical Features: Muscle twitching, risus sardonicus, opisthotonus, death due to asphyxia.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage with KMnO₄, chloral hydrate, diazepam, artificial respiration.
• Postmortem: Congestion of brain, spinal cord, early and intense rigor mortis.

Afeem (Opium)

• Botanical Name: Papaver somniferum.
• Type of Poison: Alkaloids (Morphine, Codeine, Papaverine).
• Part Used: Latex (opium).
• Fatal Dose: 2 g crude opium / 200 mg morphine.
• Fatal Period: 6–12 hours.
• Clinical Features: Pin-point pupils, deep coma, slow breathing, cyanosis.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage, naloxone, artificial respiration.
• Postmortem: Congestion, pulmonary edema, pinpoint pupils.

Dhatura

• Botanical Name: Datura stramonium.
• Type of Poison: Tropane alkaloids (Atropine, Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine).
• Ayurvedic Properties: Rasa – Tikta, Katu; Guna – Laghu, Ruksha; Virya – Ushna; Vipaka – Katu.
• Part Used: Seeds, leaves, root.
• Fatal Dose: 150–200 seeds.
• Fatal Period: 24 hours.
• Clinical Features: Dry mouth, dilated pupils, delirium, hallucination, retention of urine.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage with tannic acid, physostigmine, symptomatic.
• Postmortem: Congestion, dilated pupils.

Bhang (Cannabis)

• Botanical Name: Cannabis sativa.
• Type of Poison: Resin (Tetrahydrocannabinol – THC).
• Part Used: Leaves, flowering tops, resin.
• Fatal Dose: Rarely fatal; 8 g resin may cause death.
• Clinical Features: Euphoria, hallucination, talkativeness; in high doses → drowsiness, coma.
• Treatment: Symptomatic, sedatives.
• Postmortem: Congestion of brain, odor of cannabis.

Jayapal

• Botanical Name: Croton tiglium.
• Type of Poison: Irritant oil (Croton oil).
• Part Used: Seeds.
• Fatal Dose: 4–5 seeds.
• Fatal Period: 12–24 hours.
• Clinical Features: Burning, vomiting, purging, collapse.
• Treatment: Demulcents, supportive.
• Postmortem: Inflammation of GIT.

Gunja

• Botanical Name: Abrus precatorius.
• Type of Poison: Abrin toxalbumin.
• Part Used: Seeds (especially chewed or powdered).
• Fatal Dose: 90–120 mg abrin / 1–2 crushed seeds.
• Fatal Period: 1–3 days.
• Clinical Features: Vomiting, diarrhea, hypotension, death due to shock.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage, supportive.
• Postmortem: Hemorrhagic GIT, congestion.

Bhallataka

• Botanical Name: Semecarpus anacardium.
• Type of Poison: Irritant oil (Bhils oil).
• Part Used: Fruit pericarp.
• Fatal Dose: 5–10 fruits.
• Clinical Features: Burning in throat, blistering, vomiting, diarrhea.
• Treatment: Milk, ghee, demulcents.
• Postmortem: Blisters on skin, inflamed GIT.

Arka

• Botanical Name: Calotropis gigantea.
• Type of Poison: Irritant milky latex (Calotropin).
• Part Used: Root, latex, flowers.
• Fatal Dose: 2 g dried root bark.
• Clinical Features: Vomiting, purging, arrhythmia.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage, supportive.
• Postmortem: Congestion of GIT, ulceration.

Langali

• Botanical Name: Gloriosa superba.
• Type of Poison: Alkaloid (Colchicine).
• Part Used: Tuberous root.
• Fatal Dose: 6–8 g tuber.
• Fatal Period: 6–12 hours.
• Clinical Features: Burning, vomiting, diarrhea, renal failure.
• Treatment: Gastric lavage, demulcents, supportive.
• Postmortem: Congestion, hemorrhage in stomach, intestine, kidneys.

Ayurvedic Concepts of Garavisha and Dushivisha

Garavisha (Artificial Poison)

Garavisha is a condition where the combination of two or more non-poisonous substances in a specific ratio produces poisonous effects in the body.

Adhishthana (Location)

Rasa (plasma), Rakta (blood), and Dhatu (tissues) of the body.

Utpatti (Origin)

• Asatmya Samyoga (incompatible food combinations, impaired digestive fire).
• Improper combination of medicines or diet. Examples: Milk + fish, jaggery + radish.

Lakshana (Symptoms)

• शरीर में भारीपन (Heaviness in the body)
• आलस्य, तन्द्रा (Lethargy, drowsiness)
• त्वचा पर कण्डू, शीतपाक, विसर्पादि (Itching, cold boils, erysipelas-like lesions on skin)
• ज्वर, अरुचि, उदरशूल (Fever, anorexia, abdominal pain)
• Long-term: Kushtha (skin diseases), Gulma (abdominal lump), Shwasa (dyspnea), Hridroga (heart diseases).

Chikitsa (Treatment)

• Shodhana (purification) through Vamana (emesis) and Virechana (purgation).
• Haridra (turmeric), Triphala, Panchanimbadi Kashaya, gargles.

Agada Yogas for Garavisha

• Garavishahara Agada
• Panchasutta Agada

Dushivisha (Latent Poison)

Dushivisha refers to the consumption of a small amount of natural poison that is not completely destroyed in the body but slowly causes vitiation over time.

Adhishthana (Location)

Tvak (skin), Rakta (blood), and Dhatu (tissues).

Utpatti (Origin)

• Jeeva Visha (animal poisons like snake or scorpion venom, incompletely purified).
• Sthavara Visha (plant poisons, partially consumed, residual seeds, etc.).
• Long-term accumulation of food poisons (Anna Visha).

Lakshana (Symptoms)

• मंदज्वर, अरुचि (Low-grade fever, anorexia)
• त्वचा पर शीतपाक, कण्डू (Cold boils, itching on skin)
• केश-नखों में भंगुरता (Brittle hair and nails)
• कृशता, क्लांति (Emaciation, fatigue)
• Long-term: Shwasa (dyspnea), Hridroga (heart diseases), Udara Roga (abdominal diseases), Kushtha (skin diseases).

Chikitsa (Treatment)

• Shodhana (purification) through Vamana (emesis), Virechana (purgation), Rakta Mokshana (bloodletting).
• Use of Haridra, Triphala, Nimba, Manjishtha.

Agada Yogas for Dushivisha

• Dushivishahara Agada
• Triphala-Haridra Kalpa
• Bilwadi Agada

Ayurvedic Principles of Poison Management (Vishachikitsa)

The ancient texts describe 24 methods for managing poisoning:

1. Mantra (incantations)
2. Arishtabandhana (tying protective amulets/ligatures)
3. Utkartana (excision)
4. Nishpeedana (squeezing)
5. Chushana (suction)
6. Dahana (cauterization)
7. Parisechana (sprinkling)
8. Avagahana (immersion)
9. Rakta Mokshana (bloodletting)
10. Vamana (emesis)
11. Virechana (purgation)
12. Upadhana (application of poultice)
13. Hridyavarana (cardiac protection)
14. Anjana (collyrium application)
15. Nasya (nasal administration)
16. Dhuma (medicated smoke)
17. Avaleha (linctus)
18. Aushadhi Prayoga (medicinal application)
19. Prashamana (pacification)
20. Pratisarana (rubbing)
21. Prativisha (antidote)
22. Samjnasthapana (restoration of consciousness)
23. Lepa (external application/paste)
24. Mritasanjivana (revitalization)

Antidotes: Modern and Ayurvedic Perspectives

An antidote is a therapeutic substance or agent that neutralizes, counteracts, or prevents the toxic effects of a poison in the human body.

In Ayurveda, antidotes are referred to as Vishaghna Dravyas.

Need for Antidotes

• Life-saving Measure: Prevents mortality in acute poisoning.
• Neutralization of Poison: Directly acts on poison and makes it non-toxic.
• Prevention of Absorption: Blocks further entry of poison into systemic circulation.
• Symptomatic Relief: Reduces suffering like pain, convulsions, vomiting, respiratory distress.
• Detoxification: Helps metabolism and elimination of poison.
• Specific Therapy: Works on the root cause (poison) unlike general supportive measures.

Classification of Antidotes

I. According to Modern Toxicology

• Mechanical Antidotes: Prevent absorption of poison.
  • Examples: Activated charcoal, egg albumin, milk, demulcents.
• Chemical Antidotes: Chemically react with poison and neutralize it.
  • Examples: Chelating agents (EDTA for lead, Deferoxamine for iron, BAL for arsenic/mercury), Potassium permanganate (for alkaloids).
• Physiological / Pharmacological Antidotes: Produce opposite pharmacological effects.
  • Examples: Naloxone (for morphine/opioids), Atropine (for organophosphorus poisoning), Flumazenil (for benzodiazepines).
• Universal Antidote (classical concept): A combination used when the exact poison is unknown.
  • Activated charcoal + Magnesium oxide + Tannic acid.

II. According to Ayurveda

• Vishaghna Dravya (विषघ्न द्रव्य): Herbs neutralizing poison.
  • Examples: Haridra, Nimba, Shirish, Kantakari.
• Agada Yogas: Compound formulations against visha.
  • Examples: Dushivishari Agada, Bilwadi Agada, Dashanga Agada.
• Pathya-Apathya (आहार उपाय): Diet and lifestyle regulations for a poisoned person.
• Sanskara (संस्कार विधि): Shodhana (purification), Agni Sanskara (fire rituals), Gomutra Prayoga (cow urine application), etc., to detoxify poison.

Specific Ayurvedic Antidote Formulations

Dushivishari Agada (दूषीविषारि अगद)

Ingredients: Pippali (long pepper), Krishna (black pepper), Jatamansi (spikenard), Lodhra, Kachora Motha (zedoary), Suvarchala (Indian heliotrope), Choti Elaichi (small cardamom), Swarna Gairika (red ochre). These are mixed with honey and administered.

Panchashirish Agada (पंचशीरिष अगद)

Ingredients: Fruits, roots, bark, flowers, and leaves of Shirish (Albizia lebbeck) taken in equal quantities and ground.

Administration: Consumed with cow urine or applied topically to the sting/bite site with cow urine. It is an antidote for all types of poisons.

Uses: Panchashirish Agada is described in Charaka Samhita for all poisons. It can be used in any poisonous condition. Besides being an antitoxic, it is also used for Kushthaghna (skin diseases), Kandughna (itching), and other skin disorders. It is also used in snakebite and Luta Visha (insect poison).

Ekasara (एकसार)

1. Bakuchi Pushpa (Psoralea corylifolia flower)
2. Katabhi (Celastrus paniculatus)
3. Sindhuvara (Vitex negundo)
4. Varuna (Crateva nurvala)
5. Kushtha (Saussurea costus)
6. Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina)
7. Saptala (Euphorbia pilulifera)
8. Punarnava (Boerhavia diffusa)
9. Shirish Pushpa (Albizia lebbeck flower)
10. Aragvadha (Cassia fistula)
11. Shyama (Priyangu) (Callicarpa macrophylla)
12. Ambashtha (Cissampelos pareira)
13. Vidanga (Embelia ribes)
14. Amara (Spondias pinnata)
15. Ashmantaka (Bauhinia racemosa)
16. Bhumi (Earth/Soil, likely a specific type or preparation)
17. Kurabaka (Shirisha) (Red Amaranth/Shirisha)

Murvadi Agada (मुर्वादि अगद)

Ingredients: Murva (Marsdenia tenacissima), Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), Tagara (Valeriana wallichii), Pippali (long pepper), Patola Patra (Trichosanthes dioica leaf), Chavya (Piper retrofractum), Chitrak Mool (Plumbago zeylanica root), Vacha (Acorus calamus), Mustaka (Cyperus rotundus), Vidanga (Embelia ribes).

Anupana (Vehicle): Buttermilk (Takra), hot water, or sour fruit juice.

Uses: When the digestive fire (Agni) is weakened by Garavisha, Murvadi Agada acts as a digestive stimulant (Deepana), carminative (Pachana), absorbent (Grahi), anodyne (Anulomaka), and pain reliever (Shoola-prashamana). When used with an appropriate vehicle, it also enhances digestive fire.

Dashanga Agada (दशांग अगद)

Ingredients: Vacha (Acorus calamus), Hingu (asafoetida), Vidanga (Embelia ribes), Saindhava (rock salt), Gajapippali (Scindapsus officinalis), Patha (Cissampelos pareira), Prativisha (Aconitum heterophyllum), Shunthi (dry ginger), Maricha (black pepper), Pippali (long pepper).

Origin & Uses: This formulation was described by Maharishi Kashyapa. It is useful in insect poisoning. Vagbhatta also mentioned its utility in scorpion stings. It is considered highly effective for swelling and itching caused by scorpion venom.

Charaka Ukta Vishaghna Mahakashaya (चरक उक्त विषघ्न महाकषाय)

Ingredients: Haridra (turmeric), Manjishtha (Rubia cordifolia), Shuva (Anethum sowa), Aila (cardamom), Palindi (Tinospora cordifolia), Chandana (sandalwood), Katka (Strychnos potatorum), Shirish (Albizia lebbeck), Sindhuvara (Vitex negundo), and Shleshmataka (Cordia dichotoma).

Description & Uses: Charaka’s Vishaghna Mahakashaya describes ten antitoxic substances. Substances that act contrary to the properties of poison are called Vishaghna Dravyas. This Mahakashaya is antitoxic due to its Rasapanchaka (five properties of taste, quality, potency, post-digestive effect, and specific action) that counteract poison. Additionally, it is an Ojavardhaka (enhancer of vitality). Due to the properties of its constituent herbs, it is used in skin diseases and conditions arising from incompatible diet and lifestyle. Furthermore, it is used in snakebite and Luta Visha (insect poison).

Bilwadi Yoga (बिल्वादि योग)

Ingredients: Bilwa (Aegle marmelos), Surasa (Ocimum sanctum), Karanja (Pongamia pinnata), Tagara (Valeriana wallichii), Surva (likely a variant of Surasa or another herb), Amalaki (Emblica officinalis), Haritaki (Terminalia chebula), Vibhitaki (Terminalia bellirica), Shunthi (dry ginger), Maricha (black pepper), Pippali (long pepper), Haridra (turmeric), and Daruharidra (Berberis aristata). All these are mixed in equal quantities and ground with goat’s urine.

Uses:

1. Effective in snake venom, Luta Visha (insect poison), Mushika Visha (rat poison), Vrishchika Visha (scorpion poison), etc.
2. Useful in loss of appetite, indigestion (Ajeerna), and dyspepsia (Apacha).

Bilwadi Agada is described in Ashtanga Hridaya, Uttarasthana, Chapter 36, verses 84-85. It is highly effective due to its synergistic combination. Most of its constituent herbs are predominantly Tikta (bitter) and Katu (pungent) in taste, which pacify Kapha and Vata doshas. Most herbs, being Ushna Virya (hot potency) and Katu Vipaka (pungent post-digestive effect), act quickly to neutralize poison. Bilwadi Agada is used for swelling, pain, and gastrointestinal disorders.