Foreign Influence in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Popular Front’s Victory
In January 1936, the Republican Left, Republican Union, Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE), General Union of Workers (UGT), Communist Party of Spain (PCE), Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), and trade unionists aligned against the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA) signed the pact of the Popular Front. Recommending the formation of tactical alliances between the labor movement and the bourgeoisie to fight fascism, the Popular Front was an electoral platform calling for amnesty, the reinstatement of the Constitution of 1931, the recovery of legislation from the first biennium, and the acceleration of land reform and education. In February 1936, the elections gave the Popular Front victory.
Between February and July 1936, the following events occurred in Spain:
- Two heads of government served: Manuel Azaña was the first and, from May, Santiago Casares Quiroga, since Azaña replaced Niceto Alcalá-Zamora as president of the Republic.
- The most important political decisions were the concession of amnesty, the reinstatement of repressed workers, and the restoration of the Statute of Catalonia and the Generalitat.
- The reform program was restored, especially land reform.
- Socialists did not participate in the government due to internal division.
- The PCE believed that the defense of the republic and democracy against fascism was a priority, greatly influencing political and social life.
- The Spanish trade union movement launched an offensive led by the National Confederation of Labor (CNT) and the UGT.
- Day laborers reoccupied the lands they had been evicted from.
- A wave of strikes occurred in Madrid (May-July), particularly in the construction sector.
- Fighting took place between members of the UGT and the CNT.
- Military personnel considered “coup plotters” were removed from centers of power, but the plot resumed in February, involving anti-Azaña military personnel, civil monarchists, Carlists, and fascists.
- Terror increased as Falangist gunmen tried to spread panic.
- José Antonio Primo de Rivera was imprisoned, and his party was banned.
- Leftist militants took the law into their own hands.
- On July 12, 1936, Franco’s forces killed José Castillo, a socialist deputy and member of the Assault Guard. His companions went to the address of José Calvo Sotelo, the most famous parliamentary of the extreme right, and killed him.
The double murder shocked the public and served the conspirators to justify a military uprising.
The Internationalization of the Conflict
The civil war was followed with great interest worldwide because it marked the start of a military conflict between democracy and fascism, which continued after the outbreak of World War II. The Spanish war immediately aroused fears of expansion throughout Europe, which was already in a state of confrontation between powers. Military intervention in Spain could have meant internationalizing the conflict.
To avoid this, France and Britain established a Non-Intervention Committee in London in September 1936, comprising 30 countries that committed, in theory, not to help either side. The British, French, German, and Italian navies would each control a maritime zone to prevent war materials from reaching Spain, while France and Portugal would close their land borders. However, this was ineffective in preventing both sides from receiving foreign aid, and it was a great injustice to the Republic, denying a sovereign state elected by the people its right to buy weapons to defend itself against military insurrection.
Foreign Aid to the Republicans
The Republic received military aid from the Soviet Union, Mexico, and France.
The Soviet Union provided technical staff, supplies, and weapons, which had to be paid for with gold from the Bank of Spain.
The Mexican president sent military equipment, motivated by sympathy for the Republic and a desire to intervene in international anti-fascist politics.
France initially decided to help the Republic, but after pressure from the British, it stopped selling weapons to Spain. Its role became that of a host country, providing asylum to Republican leaders and thousands of Spanish nationals who fled Franco’s troops.
The most significant international aid came from the International Brigades, fighting units formed by volunteers from Europe and America, mostly of leftist ideology, who came to Spain to fight Spanish fascism. They were divided into six brigades, composed of battalions that grouped soldiers by country. Their intervention was crucial in defending Madrid in the autumn of 1936.
Foreign Aid to the Rebels
The rebels received assistance mainly from Italy and Germany in the form of weapons (aircraft, tanks, ammunition, etc.) and expeditionary forces (16,000 German soldiers and 40,000 Italian soldiers). Germany sent its Condor Legion, which gave the rebels air superiority for most of the war. Portugal supported the rebels by sending a few thousand fighters. The United States declared itself neutral, but its fear of the advancing communist revolution led several American companies (Ford and General Motors) to supply material to the Francoist side. The Vatican’s attitude was favorable to the rebels due to difficult relations with the Republic. Pope Pius XI was a supporter of Franco’s dictatorial regime and recognized it in August 1937.