Feudalism in Western Europe
Feudalism in Western Europe (9th-13th Centuries)
Origins
Feudalism emerged in Western Europe between the 9th and 13th centuries following the Treaty of Verdun (843), which divided the Carolingian Empire. Weakened monarchs, facing threats from Viking and Muslim invaders, sought the support of armed warriors. In exchange for military service, these warriors received land grants, leading to the rise of a powerful nobility.
The Feudal System
Life revolved around the feudum (fief), a large self-sufficient estate. This system led to decreased trade and increased isolation. The feudal hierarchy consisted of:
- Monarchs: Retained their crowns but granted land to vassals, sometimes even becoming vassals themselves.
- Nobles: Lived in castles within their fiefs, providing military and political support to their lords.
- Clergy: Often from noble families, some monasteries held vast lands and wielded significant influence.
- Peasants: Worked the land, bound to their lords through a system of obligations.
Vassalage
Personal relationships of loyalty and obligation characterized feudal society:
- Between the king and feudal lords.
- Between feudal lords and knights.
- Between lords and peasants.
Life in the Feudum
The economy was primarily agricultural and self-sufficient. Trade declined, and society was rigidly hierarchical, with the nobility and clergy at the top. Peasants worked the land, providing food and labor for their lords. Women shared farm work with men, cared for children, and tended livestock.
The Feudal Estate
The feudal estate comprised the castle, surrounding lands, pastures, cropland, and forests. Peasants lived on small plots of land granted by the lord, cultivating cereals and legumes using basic farming techniques like the Roman plow and hand tools. Livestock, including cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, provided meat, wool, and leather. Horses were essential for warfare.
Society
Society was divided into three estates: those who fought (nobility), those who prayed (clergy), and those who worked (peasants). Social mobility was limited. Two main groups existed:
- Privileged: Nobility and higher clergy, exempt from taxes and labor.
- Non-privileged: Lower clergy, free peasants, serfs, artisans, soldiers, and merchants, lacking privileges.
Nobility
The nobility consisted of feudal lords and knights. Feudal lords held significant power within their fiefs, acting as judges, collecting taxes, and raising armies. Some engaged in warfare to expand their territories, leading to feuds. Knighthood was a hereditary warrior class, bound to serve their feudal lords. Knights were expected to adhere to a code of chivalry, emphasizing honor, loyalty, and courage.
Clergy
The clergy played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting knowledge. Monasteries housed libraries where monks copied ancient texts. Cathedral schools and universities emerged in the 11th century. The clergy was divided into:
- Secular Clergy: Priests and bishops not belonging to a religious order.
- Regular Clergy: Members of religious orders like the Benedictines, Franciscans, and Dominicans, focused on prayer and monastic life.
Peasants
Peasants formed the majority of the population. Serfs were bound to the land and could not leave without their lord’s permission. Free peasants had more autonomy but still owed labor and services to their lords. Life was arduous, with long working hours and limited food. Christianity permeated every aspect of life, reflecting a theocentric worldview.
Religion and Culture
Christianity was central to medieval life. The Crusades, military expeditions to the Holy Land, and pilgrimages to holy sites like Jerusalem, Rome, and Santiago de Compostela were expressions of religious fervor. Monasteries played a vital role in preserving and transmitting culture through the copying of books. The fear of the apocalypse in the year 1000 led to a religious revival and the emergence of the Romanesque artistic style.
Technological Innovations
Two notable innovations of the period were the stirrup, which revolutionized warfare by allowing mounted knights to fight more effectively, and watermills and windmills, used for grinding grain and other purposes.