Feudalism and the Social Structure of Medieval Europe
The Origins of Feudalism
Feudalism is the name given to the political, economic, and social system in medieval Europe between the ninth and thirteenth centuries. After the Carolingian Empire, Europe was divided into numerous kingdoms. The kings were very weak; they had no armies and could not protect their lands from the new invasions that affected Europe, such as those by the Vikings, Hungarians, and Saracens (a name used to refer to Muslims during the Middle Ages). To protect the population, kings asked for military help from warriors. In return for their services, these nobles received lands.
A New Political and Social System
Men who supplied help to the king were given lands, called fiefs or manors, as compensation, and they became nobles or barons. The peasants living on these lands depended on the noble’s protection, as the noble governed in the king’s name. Nobles maintained their own armies and castles. In exchange for protection, the peasants had to work for the nobles, pay taxes, and submit to their authority, effectively becoming the nobles’ serfs.
Under feudalism, great nobles had complete control over their lands, while the king’s power was limited to the lands he controlled directly. Barons became the king’s vassals by accepting the king’s supremacy during a ceremony where they paid homage and swore allegiance. They promised to govern the land they had been given and to provide troops to fight for the king when necessary. These lords could also have vassals of their own, usually nobles of a lower rank, who swore allegiance and received smaller fiefs. This created a chain of personal ties linking the king with the nobility.
The Structure of the Fief
A fief was received and exploited by a noble. It was typically divided into two main areas:
- The Castle and the Demesne: This was where the noble lived and the land was directly under his rule. Peasants were required to work a few days a year on the lord’s lands. Manors also included forests where nobles hunted, while peasants were only permitted to collect firewood.
- The Land: Nobles rented plots of land to peasants so they could grow their own food. Rent was paid in money, products (such as a portion of the harvest, cloth, or animals), and labor on the lord’s land.
Nobles and barons collected taxes and administered justice within their territories. Peasants paid taxes to use the mill, the press, or the oven, while merchants paid taxes to cross bridges.
The Three Estates of Medieval Society
Society was divided into three groups called states:
1. The Nobility
The nobility consisted of knights and their families. We distinguish between high nobility (counts, barons, marquises) and low nobility (knights). They were a privileged class who did not pay taxes and owned fiefs. High nobility were powerful feudal lords with their own armies. Low nobility served as soldiers to defend the population, often serving as vassals to higher lords.
The Role of Noblewomen: The role of women in feudal society was to marry and have children, with marriages typically arranged by parents. They organized servants, educated children, and performed sewing. Noblewomen were expected to obey their husbands in all matters.
2. The Clergy
The Catholic Church was present throughout Western Europe, with the Pope at its head. The Church was divided into:
- Secular Clergy: Including bishops and priests who did not belong to a specific religious order.
- Regular Clergy: Members of religious orders led by an abbot, including monks, friars, and nuns. The St. Benedict Order (known for the motto “ora et labora”) was among the most famous.
There were also class differences within the clergy: the high clergy (bishops, abbots) were usually nobles, while the low clergy (priests, monks) were freemen who lived in poverty.
Life in Monasteries
Monasteries were divided into several parts: the cloister (the center, surrounded by the scriptorium, refectory, church, and kitchen), the guesthouse for pilgrims, barns for storing the tithe, and the orchard. Women who did not marry often entered convents.
3. The Peasantry
Ninety percent of the European population were peasants. They were categorized as:
- Serfs: Under the lord’s absolute authority, they could not leave the fief or marry without permission. They were not paid for their work and had to pay taxes.
- Freemen: They could leave the fief and make personal decisions. While they paid taxes to the lord, they kept a portion of their harvest.
Peasants lived in small villages in houses made of mud and wood. They were self-sufficient, but life was difficult; illness was often fatal, and few reached the age of forty due to drought, floods, and the plague.
The Medieval Economy
The base of the medieval economy was the fief, making agriculture the most important sector. The most common crops were cereals. Farming techniques were primitive, utilizing the Roman plough and wooden tools. They employed a crop rotation system, where one-third of the land was left fallow each year while the rest was cultivated.
Livestock included sheep, goats, oxen, and pigs. Trade was limited, though surplus goods were sold in city markets and fairs.
Religion, Culture, and Education
This was a deeply religious age defined by theocentrism, where God was the center of life. The Church held significant political and economic power; peasants paid a tithe (ten percent of their harvest) to the Church. This period saw the rise of pilgrimages to Rome, Santiago, and Jerusalem, as well as the Crusades—military expeditions to retake the Holy Lands.
Most people were illiterate; only a few nobles and monks could read and write. Monasteries became the most important cultural centers in Europe, where monks copied manuscripts in Latin. From the 11th century, universities such as Oxford (1096) and Bologna (1088) were founded to teach Grammar, Astronomy, and Theology.
Romanesque Art and Architecture
From the 11th to the 13th century, the Romanesque style spread across Europe. Its characteristics include:
- Architecture: Buildings like castles and cathedrals featured thick walls, strong pillars, small windows, and a Latin cross plan. They utilized semicircular arches, barrel vaults, and external buttresses.
- Sculpture: Served an educational and religious function. Figures were often unrealistic, rigid, and painted in bright colors to decorate facades and altars.
- Painting: Mural paintings and miniatures were schematic and rigid, with the size of figures representing their social or religious importance.