Fernando VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Spanish Crisis (1814–1833)
Fernando VII: Restoration and Conflict (1814)
The Restoration began in Europe after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The absolute monarchs regained their thrones and agreed to the right of intervention in those countries experiencing a liberal revolution. After the War of Independence and the signing of the Treaty of Valençay, Fernando VII was able to regain the Spanish throne. Although he was expected to rule as a constitutional monarch, upon arrival, he disobeyed the Cortes (Parliament) because he sought support to end the liberal regime instead of traveling to Madrid to swear allegiance to the Constitution.
Key features of his rule were the constant conflict between absolutism and liberalism, and the eventual independence of the American colonies.
The Absolutist Sexennium (1814–1820)
When Fernando VII returned to Spain, the nobility and clergy expressed their desire to abolish the laws of Cádiz and restore the traditional monarchy, defending the privileges of the estates, as detailed in the Manifesto of the Persians. The army and the common people also supported the King. Fernando VII immediately invalidated the Cortes, suspended the Constitution, and annulled the laws passed in Cádiz.
By 1814, Spain was in ruins. Six years of war had caused severe shortages, increased hunger, and pushed the public debt to an alarming level. Instead of focusing on recovery, Fernando VII concentrated on tracking down liberals, many of whom had to go into exile to avoid imprisonment or execution. Liberalism remained rooted mainly in the urban bourgeoisie and military sectors who had actively fought against the French.
Liberals organized secret societies to disseminate their ideas and stage movements against absolutism. Between 1818 and 1820, there were several military uprisings in favor of the Constitution, but only the one led by Rafael del Riego triumphed. Riego prompted the military forces, who were preparing to sail to suppress the rebellion in the American colonies, to revolt in Cabezas de San Juan. Following this, riots erupted in Spanish cities, forcing the King to swear allegiance to the Constitution of Cádiz in March 1820, thus ushering in the Liberal Triennium.
The Liberal Triennium (1820–1823)
The Liberal government faced the challenge of solving serious economic problems and restoring the liberal model. They introduced new laws passed in Cádiz, including:
- Abolition of entails and primogeniture.
- Disentailment of Church lands.
- Liberalization of trade.
- Improvements to the situation of the army.
- Expansion of public education.
The success of the government was hampered by the internal division between moderates and exalted liberals. Furthermore, the government faced the ongoing independence movements in the American colonies and the fierce opposition of royalists who fought against the liberal regime.
Despite having sworn the Constitution, the King secretly sought the intervention of the European monarchies that formed the Holy Alliance to restore his absolute powers. The following year, a French army (the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis) invaded Spain, effectively ending the Liberal Triennium.
The Emancipation of Spanish America
The emancipation of the American colonies was driven by several key causes:
- The discontent of the natives due to economic measures imposed in the eighteenth century, which involved the breaking of the colonial pact.
- The spread of liberal ideas.
- The crisis of 1808 in Spain (Napoleonic invasion).
- The revolutionary examples set by France and the United States.
Simón Bolívar initially aimed to create a pan-American republic, but the territory eventually divided, establishing the many republics that now constitute Latin America. The rebels were aided by Britain and the U.S., and gradually achieved full independence. Spain’s economic problems worsened significantly due to the cost of these conflicts and the permanent loss of colonial revenue.
The Ominous Decade (1823–1833) and Succession
The Ominous Decade marked a return to absolute rule, supported by the Holy Alliance, characterized by severe repression against liberals (executions, exile, etc.). Notably, the only institution of absolutism that was not re-established was the Inquisition.
Fernando VII undertook some measures to address the state’s financial bankruptcy. To ensure his daughter could inherit the throne, Fernando enacted the Pragmatic Sanction, which eliminated the Salic Law (which prevented women from ruling). Upon the death of Fernando VII, his wife, María Cristina de Borbón, assumed the regency.
Don Carlos, the King’s brother, rose up against the Regent, supported by the most staunch absolutists. This conflict marked the beginning of the First Carlist War.