Fernando VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Spanish Crisis
The Era of Fernando VII: Absolutism vs. Liberalism
The return of Fernando VII marked a period of significant upheaval, characterized by a struggle between absolutism and liberalism. His reign saw the cancellation of many liberal reforms.
The First Restoration (1814-1820)
In 1814, Fernando VII returned to Spain, greeted with enthusiasm by the populace. He received the ‘Manifesto of the Persians,’ a document from army officers, the Church, and conservative politicians urging him to overturn the Constitution and dissolve the Cortes (Parliament). On May 4, 1814, the king led a coup, issuing a decree that nullified all reforms approved by the Cortes. Many liberals were forced into exile to escape persecution.
Fernando VII restored institutions such as the councils and the Inquisition. He reinstated the jurisdiction of the manor and its privileges and suspended the confiscation initiated in 1813. However, the restored absolute monarchy soon faced a series of significant challenges:
- Government Instability: Frequent changes in ministers, often due to the king’s personal preferences and the influence of his inner circle (camarilla), led to instability.
- Economic Crisis: The Spanish state was already in debt, a situation exacerbated by the War of Independence. The emancipation of American territories further deprived the crown of revenue and hindered trade relations. The government struggled to implement a tax system that could guarantee necessary revenue without affecting the economic and social privileges of various groups.
- Liberal Political Opposition: Liberals resorted to conspiracy and military rebellion, often channeled through secret societies like Freemasonry. Military uprisings were expressed through pronouncements (declarations of rebellion).
After several unsuccessful uprisings, the rebellion led by Rafael del Riego in January 1820 triggered a political shift. These military pronouncements sought to overthrow the government, with disgruntled military officers and businessmen collaborating with intellectuals, professionals, and sometimes liberal exiles. In January 1820, Riego rebelled with his troops in Cabezas de San Juan (Seville), proclaiming the validity of the Constitution of 1812. Supported by the liberal bourgeoisie in Cadiz and La Coruna, and seconded by military insurrections in Zaragoza, Fernando VII decided to restore the Constitution of 1812.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Fernando VII swore to uphold the Constitution of 1812 in March 1820. The government attempted to implement reforms adopted in Cadiz, which had some unique characteristics. The liberals ruled and had an armed militia, but they began to split into moderate and more radical factions and faced military rebellions from absolutists.
National Militia
The government created a national militia, a civilian body outside the army, composed of armed citizens ready to defend the Constitution and the liberal regime. It was intended as a militia for citizens who owned property and could afford their uniform and equipment. Municipalities began to cover the cost of armaments, allowing urban popular classes to join. The national militia became an ally of the left wing of liberalism.
Government Programs
The government restored laws passed in Cadiz, including the final elimination of the Court of the Inquisition (1820) and the abolition of the seigneurial regime. They also implemented the dismemberment of entailed estates (desvinculación), applying it to primogeniture, which was abolished. The number of monasteries and religious orders was reduced, and the goods of eliminated orders were passed to the state and sold. Additionally, the government implemented a general regulation of public instruction, the first criminal code, and a new division of Spanish territory into 52 provinces.