Fernando VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and American Independence
Fernando VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Loss of Spanish America
In 1814, Fernando VII returned to Spain under the Treaty of Valençay. He rapidly moved to establish absolutism. This process was consolidated with the decree of May 4, 1814, which nullified the 1812 Constitution and the decrees of the Cortes of Cadiz. Fernando VII had significant support from the nobility and clergy, as evidenced in the “Manifesto of the Persians,” which rejected the liberal reforms of Cadiz.
However, neither absolutism nor liberalism remained monolithic forces; both diversified and evolved before their final confrontation upon the king’s death. Installed in Madrid, the king dissolved the regency and the Cortes. He re-established the council system, the manorial system, and the Inquisition, attempting a return to absolutism, consistent with the Europe of the Congress of Vienna and the Restoration. The Old Regime sought to re-establish itself with the support of the church, nobility, and the traditional administrative, judicial, and military apparatus. The Liberals, in contrast, had a smaller social base.
Despite this, during this early period, Ferdinand VII faced absolutist attempts to overthrow absolutism through pronouncements, such as those by Espoz y Mina. One such pronouncement, however, would succeed. In 1820, an army intended to quell the American emancipation movements revolted in the province of Cadiz. This movement, unlike its predecessors, was successful, and liberal pronouncements followed in several cities. Fernando VII was forced to swear allegiance to the Constitution of 1812.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Cortes were immediately convened, initiating a period known as the Liberal Triennium. The new Liberal government implemented measures to dismantle the institutions of the Ancien Régime and continue the work started in the Cortes of Cadiz. Key features of this period include:
- An attempt to establish a single tax to address the kingdom’s chaotic finances (a major challenge for the Triennium).
- Until July 1822, a period of moderate liberalism, seeking understanding with the dominant groups of the Old Regime.
- From July 1822, following the revolt of the Royal Guard, a shift to radical liberalism.
The royalist opposition, seeking a return to absolutism under Fernando VII, established the Regency of Urgell. The Liberal Triennium ended when the Holy Alliance decided to support the king at the Congress of Verona, leading to French intervention in Spain.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
1823 marked the beginning of the last phase of Fernando VII’s reign, known as the Ominous Decade. This period saw a return to absolutism, albeit with some attempts at reform. The Inquisition was not restored. In 1832, during the events at La Granja, pressure from Carlists (supporters of Carlos María Isidro) led to the abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanction, but the King soon reinstated it. The Cortes recognized Maria Isabel, the king’s daughter, as the heir.
The Emancipation of Spanish America (1810-1824)
Between 1810 and 1824, concurrently with the crisis of the Old Regime in Spain, a process of disintegration of the Hispanic territories in America unfolded. The causes of this independence movement included the reforms carried out in the 18th century, particularly under Charles III, and the influence of the independence of the United States.
The emancipation period can be divided into two stages:
- First Stage (1808-1815): Coincided with the Peninsular War and the return of Fernando VII. This period saw the creation of various juntas, mirroring those in Spain.
- Second Stage (1816-1824): Marked by significant advancements towards independence.
By 1824, most of Spanish America had gained independence. Only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines in Asia remained under Spanish sovereignty until 1898.