Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Crisis in 19th Century Spain
The Restoration of Absolutism in Spain (1814-1820)
After the Treaty of Valençay, which restored his throne, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain amidst popular enthusiasm, hailed as “the Desired One.” He was met with cries of “Down with the Constitution of Cádiz, Long Live Absolutism!” from absolutist deputies in Cádiz. In May 1814, General Elío had the Manifesto of the Persians published. Following this, Ferdinand VII, in his first act, suspended the Constitution of 1812 and other Gaditano decrees, with the exception of the abolition of jurisdictional domains. For all these reasons, this is considered the first coup d’état.
Following these events, liberals fled into exile as a fierce persecution began against them, given the king’s hatred. Francophiles were pardoned, while liberals had to remain in hiding and conspire to stage pronouncements in the form of coups. The old regime was restored, and with it, absolutism re-emerged, restoring the Bourbons to power. These were very difficult years, marked by economic and political crises. Governments lasted only a few months. Power in Spain lay with the ‘camarilla,’ a clique of Ferdinand VII’s friends. Meanwhile, American colonies became more independent.
However, this period ended with a coup d’état. Major Rafael del Riego pronounced in Las Cabezas de San Juan (Seville, 1820), shouting “¡Viva la Pepa!” (Long Live the Pepa!), forcing the king to reluctantly accept the Constitution. Thus began the Liberal Triennium.
The Liberal Triennium: Modernization & Conflict (1820-1823)
This period was an attempt to modernize Spain. It featured four basic characteristics:
- Division among Liberals: They were divided into ‘moderados’ (moderates, center-left) and ‘exaltados’ (radicals, left).
- Multiple Reforms: An eagerness for reform led to the banning of the Inquisition, the Mesta, and the third disentailment (desamortización) to pay off debt, which in turn led to increased taxes and protests.
- Counter-revolution: A significant surge in counter-revolutionary activity occurred in Navarre and Catalonia. Royalist forces formed ‘guerrilla’ bands. An absolutist regency was established in Seo de Urgel.
- Foreign Intervention (1823): The ‘Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis’ entered Spain, marching to Cádiz. Their purpose was to restore absolutism; liberals fled, and Ferdinand welcomed them delighted. This second French invasion was a consequence of the Holy Alliance (1814), signed by the Tsar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of Prussia. This pact stipulated that an army would be formed to suppress revolutions wherever they occurred. The Triennium finally ended with the exile of the Liberals, and concurrently, the American colonies, taking advantage of the turmoil, began to achieve complete independence.
The Ominous Decade: Absolutism & Succession (1823-1833)
This ten-year period is characterized as an enlightened, yet outdated, modernizing despotism, influenced by figures like López Ballesteros and Cea Bermúdez. The king, now older, began to change his approach. During this period, the following reforms were implemented:
- The Constitution of Cádiz was annulled.
- Tax Reform, led by López Ballesteros.
- Introduction of a Commercial Code.
Spain gradually began to recover. Nevertheless, no one was entirely satisfied, due to:
- Liberals continued to conspire in exile. Attempts like those by Espoz y Mina and Torrijos failed, with Torrijos being shot.
- The ‘Ultras,’ also known as ‘protocarlistas,’ desired a harsher, more absolutist regime.
- The Problem of Succession: This was the most significant issue. Ferdinand VII had only two daughters, Isabella and Luisa Fernanda. After Ferdinand’s death, the regency of Maria Christina of Bourbon began. The Ultras clung to the Salic Law (which prevented female succession) and demanded that Ferdinand VII’s brother, Carlos María Isidro, a staunch conservative, be the heir to the throne. Liberals, also known as ‘Isabelinos’ or ‘Cristinos,’ supported Maria Christina and Isabella, believing they could establish a more liberal government. This succession dispute led to three Carlist Wars against Carlos V (Carlos María Isidro), lasting until the reign of Alfonso XII.