Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and American Independence
Ferdinand VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and the Emancipation of Spanish America
Absolutist Six-Year Period (1814-1820)
Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in March 1814 after Napoleon’s defeat. The Treaty of Valencia restored him to the crown. Many Spaniards, including those who authored the “Manifesto of the Persians,” hoped for a return to absolute monarchy. Ferdinand VII responded with the Decree of Valencia, abolishing the reforms of the Cádiz Cortes and restoring the Old Regime. This period was characterized by:
- Political Repression: Suppression of liberals and those considered pro-French (Francophiles).
- Government Instability: Frequent changes in government due to the influence of the king’s inner circle, composed of staunch, conservative absolutists.
- Financial Crisis: Continuing from the reign of Charles IV, exacerbated by the loss of colonial trade revenue and increased military spending.
- Pronouncements: Military uprisings aimed at restoring liberalism. These were generally unsuccessful and met with severe repression. The liberal leanings of many in the army stemmed from their experiences in the War of Independence. Discontent over lack of recognition after the war also fueled these conspiracies. Notable pronouncements included those of Espoz y Mina, but only Rafael de Riego’s 1820 uprising succeeded, leading to the temporary reinstatement of the 1812 Constitution.
Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
The three years of Liberal rule were a consequence of Riego’s successful pronouncement in Cabezas de San Juan. His troops, originally destined for America, sparked a series of peasant uprisings.
- Previous government instability.
- Major Reforms: Reinstatement of the 1812 Constitution, abolition of feudal tenures, reduction of tithes, suppression of the Inquisition, establishment of a single tax on property, and creation of the National Militia.
- Strong Absolutist Opposition: At Ferdinand VII’s request, the Holy Alliance sent an army, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, which easily occupied Spain, freeing the king and restoring absolutism.
Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
- Return to Absolutism: Reintroduction of the feudal system (though the Inquisition was not restored) and harsh repression.
- Financial Measures: A focus on cost-effective restraint and the use of loans.
- Division within Absolutists: Moderates sided with Ferdinand VII, while radical absolutists, known as “pure royalists,” gathered around his brother, Charles, initiating the Carlist movement.
- Succession Crisis: Ferdinand VII had no children until 1830, when Isabella II was born to María Cristina de Borbón. To ensure Isabella’s succession, given the existing Salic Law (which prevented female inheritance), Ferdinand VII issued the Pragmatic Sanction, abolishing it. In 1832, during the events at La Granja, a seriously ill Ferdinand was pressured to reinstate the Salic Law. Upon recovering, he definitively abolished it. After his death, Isabella was proclaimed queen, and Charles fled to Portugal.
The Emancipation of Spanish America
From the late 18th century, unrest grew among the native-born Creole population against the Spanish crown, which sought greater control over the colonies. The independence of the United States significantly influenced this movement. In 1808, juntas were created, but Creoles faced discrimination, and internal divisions arose.
- First Phase (1810-1814): Initial declarations of independence. A Spanish army sent in 1814 managed to reassert control.
- Second Phase (1816-1820): Reorganization of separatist forces. Two large armies, led by Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín, defeated the Spanish.
- Third Phase (1820-1824): Bolívar from the north and San Martín from the south converged in Peru, decisively defeating the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho (1824). Spain retained only Cuba and Puerto Rico.