Faith, Reason, and the Method of Doubt
Thomas Aquinas: Faith and Reason
Thomas Aquinas built a philosophical and teleological synthesis based on the philosophy of Aristotle. He also rethought the relationship between faith and reason established by previous philosophers, giving reason more autonomy. However, it remained subject to the Christian philosophical tradition, accepting the teleological realm in any philosophical issue.
The Theory of Double Truth
Throughout the thirteenth century, Averroists insisted on the theory of “double truth,” which advocated for one truth independent of theology and one belonging to philosophy. Thomas rejected this theory, insisting on the existence of a single truth that can be known by both reason and faith. Truth is unique, and there can be no contradiction between faith and reason because both are helpful: reason can collaborate with faith by helping theology establish itself as a science. Similarly, in the absence of a double truth, faith serves as the extrinsic standard for reason. In other words, if the conclusions of reason contradict faith, these conclusions are false. Here we see that the autonomy of reason, which we mentioned earlier, increases compared to earlier philosophers but remains constrained and mentored by faith, which has the last word.
Specificity and Independence of Faith and Reason
However, Saint Thomas recognizes the specificity and independence of each, which has its own object and method of knowledge: philosophy deals with the knowledge of natural truths, which can be achieved by reason, and theology deals with the knowledge of revealed truths that can be achieved by divine revelation. There are truths that cannot be reached by reason, such as the truth that God is triune, and there are truths of reason that are not met with faith, such as mathematical truths.
Modification of the Traditional Conception
This represents a modification of the traditional conception of the relationship between faith and reason. Philosophy ceases to be a “servant” of theology, recognizing an object and a proprietary method of knowledge. However, Thomas accepts the existence of common ground between philosophy and theology (truths that can be reached through both faith and reason), represented by the “preamble” of faith, such as God’s existence and uniqueness. He believed that reason can prove the existence of God. In this area, even philosophy would be subject to theology.
Two Orders of Reality and Knowledge
Saint Thomas also argues that there are two orders of reality: the natural, which encompasses the universe, and the supernatural, which is God and his influence on the world. Consequently, there are two types of orders of knowledge: the natural, corresponding to the powers of reason and resulting in philosophy, and the supernatural, which comes from divine revelation, whose truths are accepted by faith and exceed what reason alone can achieve, such as the science of theology.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the position of Thomas Aquinas marked the end of the submission of philosophy to theology. The distinction between them would be accepted in later centuries, becoming one of the key elements in understanding the emergence of modern philosophy.
Descartes: Method and Application
Descartes is considered the father of modern philosophy.
The Need for a Solid Foundation
He argues that the sciences take their principles from philosophy, but philosophy itself is not built on sound principles, as evidenced by disputes on philosophical subjects. Thus arises the need for philosophy to rest on solid pillars. It’s about finding a safe method to attain knowledge.
Reason and the Method
Therefore, Descartes stated that the only reliable way to access knowledge is through reason. To reach the truth of things through reason, a method is needed.
Descartes’s goal was to raise awareness and prevent error, i.e., to access new truths. To do this, he built his method on reason, the only way to access knowledge.
Two Types of Knowledge
He concluded that there are two types of knowledge: intuition, which involves capturing the simple truths that emanate from reason, and deduction, which is the mental process by which, from simple intuitions, one accesses complex truths.
The Four Rules of the Method
- Evidence, clarity, and distinction: Do not accept as true what is not known clearly and distinctly, so that there is no doubt. This is the moment of intuition.
- Analysis: Split each difficulty into as many parts as possible for resolution.
- Order and synthesis: Proceed methodically, going from simple to complex through deduction. Then summarize the previous analysis to reconstruct the order.
- List and check: Ensure that nothing is missed. This controls the whole process through review.
Methodical Doubt
Descartes uses doubt as the basis of his method, employing it as a tool for finding certainty. To establish knowledge on something safe, firm, and final, he had to put everything into question as potentially dubitable. Doubting something implies suspending judgment about it due to a lack of certainty and security.
So his questioning is methodical: it will not last forever, only until he finds the foundation that will allow him to be sure and, from it, build solid knowledge. It is a universal question that applies to all knowledge and is a step towards seeking certainty.
Reasons for Doubt
The reasons for doubt are that the experiences from the senses are not safe, the difficulty of distinguishing waking from sleep (based on dreams that threaten his certainties), and the hypothesis of the “evil genius” that makes him wrong about even obvious and elementary truths.
The Search for an Indubitable Truth
Descartes wants to establish a radical doubt to reach the limit and, from there, establish a fixed principle from which to explain and substantiate knowledge.
He needed to find an indubitable truth and found it in his own existence: “I think, therefore I am.” The activity of thinking implies a thinking being and its existence.
The First Principle of Philosophy
This truth is established as the first principle of philosophy. It is an immediate truth accessible by intuition. For Descartes, all that is conceived with the same clarity as this proposition is true.
The Criterion of Certainty
Thus, he establishes the criterion of certainty, from which all other knowledge is constructed. Since Descartes, the only criterion is rational.