Factors Influencing Second Language Acquisition: Age and Personality
Ultimate Attainment: Natural vs. Formal Settings
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): This hypothesis proposes a biological timetable for the maturation of organic systems, including language. The CPH suggests that there’s a critical period for language acquisition, after which native-like proficiency becomes difficult.
Evidence for CPH in First Language Acquisition (FLA):
- Lenneberg proposed a critical period from birth to around 10 years old, with the first 4 years being most crucial for mother tongue acquisition.
- The case of Genie, isolated until age 13, supports the CPH, as she never achieved full language fluency.
Evidence for CPH in Second Language Acquisition (SLA):
Research suggests a more complex picture in SLA, with various studies showing different results:
- Johnson & Newport (1989): Learners who start before age 7 achieve native-like grammatical competence, while those starting after 15 often experience fossilization.
- DeKeyser: Suggests 16 as the age limit for native-like grammar acquisition.
- Patkowski: Native-like pronunciation is more likely before age 6, but not guaranteed.
- Hellman: Children acquire more receptive vocabulary than adults.
Sensitive Period: While a strict critical period might not exist in SLA, there’s evidence for a sensitive period, where earlier learning is generally more advantageous, with puberty often considered a turning point.
Questioning a Categorical CPH for SLA: Recent Research
Several factors challenge the idea of a definitive critical period for SLA:
Q1: Variability in Ultimate Attainment:
- Many adult learners achieve high levels of proficiency, comparable to early starters.
- Native-like proficiency, even in pronunciation, is not guaranteed for all L2 learners, regardless of age of acquisition.
Q2: Variability in Offset Points:
- Adults retain some brain plasticity, allowing for implicit language acquisition beyond puberty.
- Cognitive decline, rather than age itself, may be a more significant factor in language learning difficulty.
- Different language areas (e.g., pronunciation, grammar) may have different sensitive periods.
Other Factors Influencing SLA:
- Quality and Quantity of Practice: Input and output experience play a crucial role in language acquisition success.
- Interference and Distance Between L1 and L2: Similarities and differences between the native language and the target language can impact learning.
- Motivation: Learners with higher motivation tend to be more successful.
- Aptitude: Individual differences in language learning ability can influence outcomes.
- Education/Instruction: The quality and type of language instruction received can significantly impact learning.
Formal vs. Natural Settings:
- In formal settings, older learners may have an advantage due to their developed cognitive skills and self-discipline.
- In natural settings, younger learners may benefit from more intuitive acquisition and greater exposure to comprehensible input.
Long-Term Success: Research suggests that input, rather than age of acquisition, is a better predictor of long-term success in grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary.
Personality Traits
While personality traits were once considered fixed, recent models suggest a dynamic interplay between stable traits and variable, situationally-based features.
Personality Factors and Language Learning Success:
Research is ongoing to determine which personality factors contribute to successful language learning. Some potential factors include:
- Openness to experience
- Conscientiousness
- Extroversion
- Motivation
- Resilience
Does SLA Affect Personality?
The relationship between SLA and personality is complex. It’s unclear whether certain personality traits lead to greater language learning success or if successful language learning experiences influence personality development.
Conclusion:
Both age and personality play a role in second language acquisition, but their influence is multifaceted and interacts with various other factors. While a strict critical period for SLA may not exist, a sensitive period suggests advantages for earlier learning. However, individual differences, motivation, quality of input, and other factors can significantly impact language learning outcomes regardless of age.