Exploring the Philosophy of Life, Death, and Evil
Types of Responses to Life’s Absurdity
Nihilism
The belief that life is inherently meaningless. Thinkers associated with this view include Jean-Paul Sartre, Jacques Monod, Albert Camus, and Emil Cioran.
Existentialism
The belief that existence has inherent purpose, meaning, or value, despite the limitations imposed by death. Thinkers associated with this view include Ernst Bloch and Enrique Tierno Galván.
Transcendence
The belief that life’s meaning is found in relation to something beyond human existence, often seen as a promise of ultimate happiness.
The Question of Death
Death is the irreversible cessation of vital activity. Our understanding of death depends on our conception of life.
The Philosophical Concept of Life
Ortega y Gasset defined life as being in the world, existing in specific circumstances. For him, living humanely is the primordial reality. He stated, “Life is choice, is to build itself.”
Death as a Human Phenomenon
Death gains full significance when considering the end of human life. Only humans are aware of their own existence and, therefore, their mortality.
Death and Philosophy (Plato, Cicero)
Philosophy can be seen as a preparation for death. The more fully we live, the more humanely we can face our own mortality.
The Experience of Death
Immanuel Kant argued that we cannot truly experience or even fully comprehend our own death.
Death as a Definition of Human Beings
Existentialism posits that the unique aspect of humanity is not found in its essence but in its existence. Our essence is to exist; we are born, and then through our lives, we develop our essence.
Martin Heidegger believed we are finite, historical beings. Death, for him, is a fundamental aspect of human existence – “Being for death.”
Jean-Paul Sartre distinguished between death and finitude. Finitude, he argued, reveals the radical freedom of human existence.
Meaning of Death and Transcendence
The meaning of death varies depending on our understanding of human beings. Two primary positions are monism and psychophysical dualism.
Monism
This view argues that human reality is not composed of separate parts. Pantheism, a type of monism, suggests that death is the dissolution of individuality into the universal cosmos. Materialistic monism denies any non-material dimension to human existence, making death the absolute limit.
Dualism
This view argues that humans are composed of two realities: a material body and a spiritual soul. Death is often seen as the separation of these components. Religions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam often hold dualistic views. Some dualistic perspectives believe body and soul exist together only in life, while others believe the soul continues to exist separately after death. In these cases, death is often viewed as a transition to another form of existence.
The Question of Evil
Theodicy addresses the problem of evil in a world governed by a benevolent God. Philosophers have attempted to justify the existence of evil, sometimes seeing God as the ultimate means of overcoming it.
Types of Evil
Metaphysical Evil
Identified with the finite nature of things.
Physical Evil
Stems from the operation of natural laws.
Moral Evil
Rooted in the freedom of humans to choose between different actions.
Metaphysical Evil vs. Moral Evil
Leibniz considered metaphysical evil as an unavoidable consequence of the world’s finite nature. The problem for God is whether to create a world that necessarily includes finitude and therefore evil. However, the question of moral evil goes beyond metaphysical inquiry.
Evil as Injustice
The absurdity of suffering experienced by the righteous, as exemplified in the story of Job, raises questions about the nature of evil. Job’s suffering points to a God beyond human logic, acting according to plans inaccessible to us. Seneca, on the other hand, suggests an immanent logos understandable through human intellect. He believes the problem of evil can be resolved through an attitude of indifference or detachment from it.