Exploring Key Ethical Theories: A Comprehensive Overview
Posted on Aug 21, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics
Chapter 1: Ethics and Ethical Reasoning
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Normative Claim | In philosophy, normative statements affirm how things should or ought to be, how to value them, which things are good or bad, and which actions are right or wrong. |
| Aesthetics | The study of beauty and art. |
| Argument | A set of statements, one of which (the conclusion) is supported by the others (the premises). |
| Conclusion | The statement that is supported by the premises in an argument. |
| Premise | A statement that supports the conclusion in an argument. |
| Unstated Premise | An assumption that links the stated premise to the conclusion in an argument. |
| Valid Argument | An argument in which the conclusion follows logically from the premises. |
| Sound Argument | A valid argument with true premises. |
| Normative Ethics | The study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act. |
| Descriptive Ethics | The study of how people actually behave and what their moral beliefs are. |
| Factual Claim | A statement that can be verified or falsified through observation or experimentation. |
Learning Objectives
- Be able to identify the conclusion in an argument.
- Be able to identify a premise or reason given to support a conclusion in an argument.
- Be able to identify an unstated premise in an argument. That is, be able to read between the lines and pull out an assumption that links the stated premise to the unstated premise.
Chapter 2: Ethical Relativism
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Ethical Relativism | The view that moral right and wrong are relative to the individual or society. |
| Individual or Personal Ethical Relativism (Subjectivism) | The view that moral right and wrong are relative to the individual. |
| Social or Cultural Ethical Relativism | The view that moral right and wrong are relative to the society or culture. |
| Moral Realism | The view that there are objective moral truths that are independent of individual or societal beliefs. |
| Dependency Thesis | The claim that morality is dependent on something else, such as individual or societal beliefs. |
| Skepticism | The view that knowledge is impossible or that we should doubt the possibility of knowledge. |
Learning Objectives
- Understand the difference between morality being dependent upon what the culture believes is right (strong claim) and morality being expressed differently in different cultural settings.
- Understand the difference between morality being dependent upon the beliefs of the individual and morality being dependent upon the beliefs of the society.
- Be able to give reasons in favor of ethical relativism based on culture and ethical relativism based on the society.
- Be able to criticize the various arguments given in favor or ethical relativism. Be able to show how some argument in favor or relativism are inconsistent (argument from tolerance) and some don’t go far enough (is ought fallacy).
- Be able to give reasons in support of moral realism or objectivism.
Chapter 4: Utilitarianism
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Utilitarianism | A moral philosophy that holds that the best action is the one that maximizes utility. |
| Consequentialism | The view that the morality of an action is determined by its consequences. |
| Utility | The state of being useful, profitable, or beneficial. |
| Happiness | A state of well-being and contentment. |
| J.S. Mill | A philosopher who developed and popularized utilitarianism. |
| Jeremy Bentham | A philosopher who founded utilitarianism. |
| Greatest Happiness Principle | The principle that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. |
| Hedonic Calculus | A method of calculating the pleasure or pain that will result from an action. |
| Higher and Lower Pleasures | Mill’s distinction between pleasures of the mind and pleasures of the body. |
| Intensity | The strength or forcefulness of a pleasure or pain. |
| Duration | The length of time a pleasure or pain lasts. |
| Likelihood (Certainty) | The probability that a pleasure or pain will occur. |
| Fruitfulness (Fecundity) | The tendency of a pleasure or pain to produce more pleasures or pains. |
| Act Utilitarianism | The view that we should apply the principle of utility to individual actions. |
| Rule Utilitarianism | The view that we should follow rules that tend to promote the greatest happiness. |
| Intrinsic Good | Something that is good in itself, regardless of its consequences. |
| Instrumental Good | Something that is good because it leads to something else that is good. |
Learning Objectives
- Understand how to make moral decisions from a Utilitarian perspective.
- Be able to apply the principle of utility or greatest happiness principle.
- Be able to take various factors into consideration when determining the greatest good for the greatest number (intensity, duration, certainty, and fecundity of the pleasure).
- Understand the difference between an intrinsic and an instrumental good.
- Know what Mill and Bentham consider to be the one intrinsic good.
- Understand Mill’s distinction between higher and lower pleasures.
- Be able to criticize the theory of Utilitarianism. You may consider:
- What potentially undesirable conclusions could it lead us to?
- What difficulties does it have in its application?
- Is happiness the only intrinsic good?
- Understand the difference between act and rule utilitarianism. What problems does rule utilitarianism attempt to solve? How might I criticize rule utilitarianism?
Chapter 5: Kant’s Moral Theory
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Deontology | The view that the morality of an action is determined by its adherence to rules or duties. |
| Duty | A moral or legal obligation. |
| Good Will | The only thing that is good without qualification, according to Kant. |
| Hypothetical Imperative | A command that applies only if you want to achieve a certain goal. |
| Categorical Imperative | A command that applies unconditionally. |
| Kant’s Categorical Imperative | Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. |
| Formula of Humanity | Treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end. |
| Formula of Universal Law | Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. |
| Universalizable | Capable of being applied to everyone without contradiction. |
| Ends-in-Themselves | Beings that have intrinsic value and should not be treated merely as means to an end. |
| Mere Means | Treating someone as a tool or object to achieve your own goals. |
| Means | A method or way of achieving something. |
| Inclination | A feeling or desire that motivates you to act. |
| Self-Interest | Concern for your own well-being. |
| Will | The faculty of choosing or deciding. |
| Maxim | A principle or rule that guides your actions. |
| Perfect Duty | A duty that you must always fulfill. |
| Imperfect Duty | A duty that you should fulfill, but not necessarily in every instance. |
Learning Objectives
- What gives an action moral worth for Kant?
- Why does Kant think we should not take the consequences of our action into account when making moral judgments?
- What is the good will? Why does Kant say we would not give up the good will for anything else?
- What does Kant think is the highest moral motivation?
- What does it mean to say one acts out of a sense of duty rather than inclination?
- What is the difference between a categorical and hypothetical imperative? What is Kant’s categorical imperative?
- Understand what your book calls the first formulation of Kant’s categorical Imperative (formula of universal law) “Act only under that maxim that you can at the same time will to become universal law.” Be able to apply this to various moral decisions.
- Understand what your book calls the Second Formulation of Kant’s categorical imperative (formula of humanity). “Treat all of humanity whether in yourself or that of another person always at the same time as an ends and never merely as a means.” Be able to apply this to various moral decisions.
- Be able to criticize Kant’s theory.
- What difficulties might we come to in its application?
- What undesirable conclusions might we come to under this theory?
- Understand the difference between treating someone as a means and treating them as a mere means.
- Understand what it is to treat people as ends-in-themselves.
Chapter 7: Morality and Human Nature
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Natural Law Theory | A theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere. |
| Natural Law | A system of law that is purportedly determined by nature, and thus universal. |
| Human Function | The purpose or characteristic activity of human beings. |
| Eudaimonia | A Greek word commonly translated as happiness or welfare; however, “human flourishing” has been proposed as a more accurate translation. |
| Human Nature | The fundamental characteristics and traits of human beings. |
| Aristotle | A Greek philosopher who developed virtue ethics and a theory of human nature. |
| Rationality | The ability to reason and think logically. |
| Wisdom | The quality of having experience, knowledge, and good judgment. |
Learning Objectives
- How do natural law theorists try to arrive at morality? What problems are there with this (is/ought, goodness or badness of human nature, etc.).
- What is Aristotle’s conception of human nature and how does he use it to arrive at a sense of morality?
- What is eudaimonia or human-flourishing, according to Aristotle?
- What trait or ability separates human from animals, according to Aristotle?
Chapter 8: Virtue Ethics
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Virtue | A trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. |
| Virtuous Person | A person who possesses and lives out virtues. |
| Mean Between Two Extremes | Aristotle’s concept of virtue as a balance between two vices, one of excess and the other of deficiency. |
| Excess | Having too much of a certain quality. |
| Aristotle | A Greek philosopher who developed virtue ethics. |
| Virtue Ethics | A broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring about good consequences. |
| Vice | A practice, behavior, or habit generally considered immoral, sinful, criminal, rude, taboo, depraved, or degrading in the associated society. |
| Deficiency | Having too little of a certain quality. |
| Eudaimonia | A Greek word commonly translated as happiness or welfare; however, “human flourishing” has been proposed as a more accurate translation. |
| Excellence | The quality of being outstanding or extremely good. |
Learning Objectives
- Understand the difference between virtue ethics and other types of moral theories like Utilitarianism and Kant’s moral theory. How is the focus different?
- How does Aristotle think that people develop virtues or become virtuous people?
- How is virtue the mean between two extremes?
- How and why is the mean relative to the individual?
- Be able to identify some virtues and explain how they are the mean between two extremes.
- Be able to give reasons in favor of virtue ethics.
- Be able to criticize the theory of virtue ethics.
- Be able to identify some problems in how we determine what virtues to cultivate and what exactly the mean is between two extremes.
Chapter 9: Feminist Thought and Ethics of Care
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Carol Gilligan | An American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist best known for her work on ethical community and ethical relationships. |
| Kohlberg | An American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. |
| Nel Noddings | An American feminist, educator, and philosopher best known for her work in philosophy of education, ethical caring, and educational theory. |
| Female Ethical Perspective | A perspective on morality that emphasizes care, relationships, and empathy. |
| Male Ethical Perspective | A perspective on morality that emphasizes justice, rights, and autonomy. |
| Feminine Ethics | Often used interchangeably with feminist ethics, but sometimes used to refer to the ethics of feminine characteristics. |
| Feminist Ethics | An approach to ethics that builds on the belief that traditionally ethical theorizing has under-valued and/or under-appreciated women’s moral experience. |
| One-Caring | The person who provides care in a caring relationship. |
| Cared-For | The person who receives care in a caring relationship. |
Learning Objectives
- What is the difference between masculine and feminine ethics, according to your book?
- What is care ethics? How is it based on women’s experiences? Can men use care ethics?
- Why might we need an ethics of care?
- What are the problems with traditional morality that care ethics tries to solve and how does it try to solve them?
- Why do some feminists criticize care ethics?
