Evolution of Scientific Thought: From Inductivism to Modern Perspectives
The Question for Science
In the twentieth century, most scientific problems were linked to technology.
Different Conceptions of Science
Some believe science provides objective, true, and reliable knowledge, while others don’t differentiate between modern science and myths or magic. The conception of science is widening to include social and psychological aspects, traditionally distant from science.
Falsificationism vs. Inductivism
Rudolf Carnap’s inductive conception argued that science offers objective, reliable knowledge derived from experience. Empirically unverified theories are deemed unscientific. However, this faces the problem of induction: how can scientific laws be validated for all phenomena without verifying all? One solution is to consider laws as probably true, but this compromises the certainty science initially aimed for.
Karl Popper criticized inductive reasoning, stating that observations depend on the theory. He proposed falsificationism, where universal conclusions are not derived from singular statements, but the falsity of singular statements deductively proves the falsity of universal statements. Scientific knowledge is objective but probable, not absolute truth. Science is an approximation of truth, not proven knowledge as inductivists claimed.
The Historical and Sociological Turn in Science
Kuhn proposed considering science’s historical and sociological aspects, not just logical and empirical ones. He introduced the concept of a scientific community sharing a paradigm—a broad conceptual framework with shared assumptions, problem-solving approaches, and values. Normal science occurs when a community shares a paradigm. Scientific revolutions happen when one paradigm replaces another. Kuhn and Lakatos showed that sociological and historical aspects influence scientific activity.
Alternative Conceptions of Science
Anything Goes
Feyerabend argued that all methodologies have limitations, and “anything goes.” He proposed a conception of science based on abandoning the idea of science as a purely rational activity. Science is not superior to other knowledge forms, and theory choices are based on individual values and desires, making science non-objective.
Rhetorical Conception of Science
Analytical methods from literary criticism are applied to science. Some argue that scientific theories are rhetorical constructs aimed at facilitating understanding of reality.
Constraints of Science
Epistemological
Falsificationism states that science is fallible, and knowledge is only an approximation of truth. Our rationality is a product of evolutionary development, which could be different.
Technological
Science is conditioned by technology, as data depends on technological means. The power of science has been exaggerated, and scientific development has limits.
Economic and Political
Technology is expensive, potentially slowing scientific progress. Industries and governments impose limits or refuse funding for certain research.
Scope of Scientific Discourse
Science cannot answer all questions, as it is not the only valuable knowledge. Some human problems lie outside science’s domain.
The Role of Ethics in Science
Humans must make ethical choices among the possibilities offered by science and technology. Ethics can help make decisions affecting many people. Discoveries with undesirable consequences require reflection. A moratorium allows scientists and society to consider research implications and anticipate risks. Ethical reflection helps scientists understand their work’s meaning and addresses problems arising from scientific and technological development.