Evolution of Indian Governance: Ancient Systems to Modern Constitution
British Administration in India
The British administration in India evolved over a long period, beginning with the East India Company’s trading interests and culminating in a centralized and bureaucratic system under the British Crown. The administration can be broadly divided into two phases: Company rule (till 1858) and Crown rule (1858–1947).
1. East India Company Rule (Pre-1858)
The British came to India as traders in 1600 under the East India Company. After the weakening of the Mughal Empire, the Company gained administrative control, especially after obtaining the ‘Diwani’ rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1765. It gradually transformed from a trading body to a political authority. The Company created a structured bureaucracy with positions like District Collectors and Judges and passed key regulations such as:
- Regulating Act, 1773: Brought Company affairs under British government supervision.
- Pitt’s India Act, 1784: Created a Board of Control in England.
- Charter Acts (1793, 1813, 1833, and 1853): Limited Company power and increased British control.
By 1858, due to administrative failures and the 1857 Revolt, the Company was dissolved, and rule passed to the British Crown.
2. Crown Rule (1858–1947)
The Government of India Act, 1858, officially transferred power from the Company to the British Crown. The Viceroy replaced the Governor-General, and new administrative measures were introduced. Some major reforms included:
- Indian Councils Act, 1861: Allowed inclusion of Indians in legislative councils.
- Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Expanded councils and introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
- Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): Introduced dyarchy at the provincial level and increased Indian participation.
- Government of India Act, 1935: Proposed an all-India federation and granted provincial autonomy.
Though these reforms gave limited participation to Indians, real power remained with the British.
Key Features of British Administration
Several features of British governance have left a lasting impact on Indian administration:
- Centralization: Authority was concentrated under the Governor-General and later the Viceroy.
- Provincial Governments: Gradual decentralization occurred, especially under the 1935 Act.
- Local Administration: The office of the District Collector was introduced for revenue collection and law enforcement.
- Rule of Law: British introduced codified laws and an impartial judiciary.
- Civil Services: The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was developed to ensure efficient governance. Recruitment was done through competitive exams.
Conclusion on British Rule
The British administration in India laid the foundation of modern administrative practices like civil services, judiciary, and centralized governance. Though exploitative and colonial in nature, many institutions and administrative frameworks developed under British rule continue to exist in independent India.
Ancient Indian Administrative Systems
The ancient Indian administrative system evolved over time through different phases, from the early tribal system of the Vedic period to the highly organized and elaborate bureaucracies of the Mauryan and Gupta empires. These systems laid the foundational principles for governance in India.
Early Vedic and Later Vedic Administration
In the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), administration was tribal in nature. The chief of a tribe, called the Rajan, was responsible for the protection and welfare of the people. He was assisted by officials like the purohita (chaplain), senani (army chief), dutas (envoys), and spash (spies). However, his powers were checked by tribal assemblies such as the sabha and samiti.
In the Later Vedic period, these tribes transformed into small kingdoms. The Rajan evolved into a hereditary monarch with growing control over land and resources. The concepts of bali (tribute) and centralized rituals enhanced the status of kingship, although sabha and samiti still existed with reduced power.
Mauryan Administration (321–185 BCE)
The Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta and Ashoka was the first to bring political unity to India. Its administration was highly centralized yet allowed for decentralization at provincial and local levels.
Central Administration
The king was the supreme authority, advised by a Mantri Parishad (Council of Ministers). Departments were headed by officials called Adhyakshas. Important posts included Samaharta (revenue head) and Sannidhata (treasury head).
Provincial and Local Administration
The empire was divided into provinces (Janapadas) and districts, administered by governors and officials like Rajukas and Yuktas. Urban areas had municipal boards with six specialized committees. Villages were administered by Gramani and Gopa, and regular census was conducted.
Revenue and Judicial System
Land revenue formed the core income (nominally 1/6th of the produce), supplemented by taxes on trade, forests, water, and mines. The king was the chief justice, supported by Dharmathikarin and Amatyas. Ashoka introduced reforms like pardons and appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to ensure justice and welfare.
Gupta Administration (c. 320–550 CE)
The Gupta period is known as the “Golden Age” of Indian history and had a relatively decentralized administrative system.
Central and Provincial Administration
The king was a benevolent monarch with divine status, assisted by a Mantri Parishad. Key officials included Mahadandnayaka (chief of justice), Mahasenapati (army chief), and Mahasandhivigrahika (foreign affairs).
The empire was divided into Bhuktis (provinces), further subdivided into Vishayas (districts), and then into villages. Each level had functionaries responsible for revenue, law, and order.
Local Administration and Guilds
Villages were run by Gramika with the help of panchayats. In urban areas, Nagara-Rakshaka and Purapala handled governance. Trade guilds had autonomy and even managed internal disputes.
Revenue and Judicial System
Land revenue remained the main income source. The judicial system became more defined with separate civil and criminal codes. Village assemblies and trade guilds acted as local courts. The king was the final authority.
Military and Trade
The Guptas maintained a standing army with specialized divisions. Trade, both inland and international (with China, Southeast Asia, and Europe), strengthened the empire economically and politically.
Conclusion on Ancient Systems
The ancient Indian administrative systems evolved from tribal councils to highly organized bureaucracies. The Mauryan system emphasized centralization with welfare and discipline, while the Gupta system balanced royal authority with decentralization and local participation. Both systems influenced the structure of governance in India and laid the foundation for later administrative models.
The Constitution of India
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the land and provides the legal, political, and administrative framework of the country. It is not just a legal document but a vision for the nation’s democratic governance, justice, and equality.
1. Written and Detailed Constitution
India has a written Constitution, which is one of the lengthiest in the world. It incorporates elements from various countries:
- Fundamental Rights from the U.S. Constitution.
- Parliamentary system from the U.K.
- Directive Principles from Ireland.
- Emergency provisions from Germany and the Government of India Act, 1935.
It addresses India’s vast diversity, administrative complexity, and the need for a strong center.
2. Parliamentary Democracy
India follows the parliamentary system both at the centre and in the states. The President is the nominal head, while real powers are exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister. Ministers are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament.
3. Federal Structure with Unitary Bias
India’s Constitution is federal in form but unitary in spirit. It divides powers between the Centre and States through:
- Union List (99 subjects)
- State List (61 subjects)
- Concurrent List (52 subjects)
In normal times, it operates like a federation, but during emergencies, it becomes unitary, with the Centre exercising overriding powers.
4. Fundamental Rights and Duties
Part III of the Constitution guarantees Fundamental Rights (Articles 12 to 35) such as the right to equality, freedom, and protection against exploitation. They are enforceable by the courts.
Part IV-A (Article 51A) lists Fundamental Duties, added by the 42nd Amendment, though they are non-justiciable.
5. Directive Principles of State Policy
Inspired by the Irish Constitution, Directive Principles (Articles 36 to 51) guide the State in making laws for promoting social and economic welfare. Though not enforceable, they are fundamental to governance.
6. Judicial Independence and Review
India has an independent judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, followed by High Courts and subordinate courts. It has the power of judicial review to check the constitutional validity of laws. The judiciary also protects fundamental rights.
7. Combination of Rigidity and Flexibility
The Indian Constitution strikes a balance—some parts require a special amendment procedure (like federal provisions), while others can be amended by a simple parliamentary majority. This makes the Constitution both rigid and flexible.
8. Role of Constitutional Authorities
Key authorities include:
- Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG): Audits government expenditure.
- Attorney General of India: Chief legal advisor to the government.
- Election Commission: Conducts free and fair elections.
- Union Public Service Commission (UPSC): Recruits civil servants.
- Finance Commission: Recommends distribution of financial resources between Centre and States.
- Language Commission and Commissions for SC/ST safeguard the rights of minorities and weaker sections.
9. Local Government
The 73rd and 74th Amendments granted constitutional status to Panchayati Raj (rural) and Municipal bodies (urban), establishing a third tier of governance for decentralized administration.
Conclusion on Constitutional Framework
India’s constitutional framework is a blend of federalism, democracy, and strong central authority. It reflects the ideals of justice, equality, liberty, and fraternity enshrined in the Preamble. Despite its complexity, it remains flexible and adaptive, ensuring unity in diversity and continuity in governance.