Europe’s Recovery and Transformation: 15th-16th Centuries
The Recovery of the European Population
In the 14th century, Europe suffered from a terrible crisis. There was not enough food to feed everyone, and many died of starvation, as heavy rains swept away harvests. Additionally, the Black Death arrived, killing a quarter of the population. From the 15th century onward, the situation improved.
Economic Growth
The 15th and 16th centuries were prosperous. The population reached pre-plague levels, leading to increased demand for products. New geographical discoveries revived trade. The major powers were Venice, Florence, Seville, the Hanseatic League, Antwerp, and Lisbon.
Social Transformation
The nobility and clergy remained the most powerful groups, exempt from paying taxes and dominating society. Society was still divided into three estates:
- Nobility and Clergy: Maintained their power and privileges.
- Bourgeoisie: Became more numerous, with some individuals accumulating great wealth, even lending money to kings.
- Peasants: Remained poor, although their situation improved, and some became free.
The Authoritarian Monarchies
In the 15th century, kings continued to reinforce their power by creating a bureaucracy, increasing taxes, strengthening the army, and establishing a diplomatic network.
Castile and Aragon
In the 15th century, after the death of the King of Castile, a civil war ensued, resulting in Isabel la Católica’s ascension. In the Crown of Aragon, following a succession crisis, Fernando became King. Isabel was crowned in 1477, and Fernando, her son, ascended to the throne in 1479. They married, but ruled jointly, maintaining their prior arrangements. After Elizabeth’s death, there was a risk of separation because their daughter, Juana la Loca, was unable to rule until her son took the throne. In 1492, they conquered Granada, and after Elizabeth’s death, the kingdoms of Navarre, Naples, Melilla, Oran, and the Canary Islands. They created the Inquisition to persecute heretics, and in 1512, they expelled the Muslims from the peninsula.
Renaissance: The Epoch of Humanism
Human beings became the center of concern, inspired by the philosophy and art of antiquity. Truth was defended through reason and experience. The invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1440 made it possible to publish more books at a lower cost. Humanistic academies flourished. A theory emerged that all planets revolved around the sun, which the church refused to accept. New discoveries were made in anatomy, including minor circulation, and new disciplines were created.
The New Artistic Style: Renaissance
Man became the center of art, rejecting the abundant decoration of the Gothic style and preferring the styles of the Greeks or Romans. Quattrocento transitioned to Cinquecento, and Florence to Rome. Artists signed their works and sought fame. Patrons funded the works. The four most important artists of the Cinquecento were Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Titian.
The Lutheran Reformation
Lutheranism defended that people are saved by faith and not by their actions. Believers are directly related to God and do not need intermediaries. The only source of truth is the sacred texts, and of the seven sacraments, only Baptism and the Eucharist are true. Papal authority was denied.
Calvinism
Calvinism stated that people were predestined to be saved or condemned at birth, regardless of their works.