Europe’s Historical Evolution: Absolutism, Revolution, and Industrialization
The Ancien Régime and Absolutism in Europe
The Ancien Régime was the political, social, and economic system prevalent in many parts of Europe up to the 18th century. This society was characterized by a system of estates and an agrarian economy, ruled by an absolute monarch.
Absolutism was the dominant system of government in much of 18th-century Europe. Under absolutism, monarchs held full legislative, executive, and judicial powers. They governed, introduced laws, and appointed judges. The monarch’s powers included:
- Deciding laws and applying them through decrees.
- Heading the administration and leading the army.
- Being the highest judicial authority.
The French Revolution: From Monarchy to Republic
This assembly lasted for less than a year and failed to attract much support. There was fierce opposition from the nobility and the clergy who didn’t want to give up their privileges.
Following the insurrection of August 1792, a National Convention governed France from September 1792. This body abolished the monarchy, and France became a republic. The Girondins initially controlled the assembly. The Convention judged and condemned Louis XVI for treason, and he was executed by guillotine in January 1793.
Believing that the revolution was in danger, radical revolutionaries seized power from the Girondins in June 1793. The Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, assumed all powers and established a dictatorship. The Reign of Terror was a ten-month period of violent repression. Individuals suspected of opposing the Republic, even without proof, were sentenced to death by the guillotine. In 1794, moderate revolutionaries arrested Robespierre and his followers, who were subsequently executed by guillotine.
Industrial Revolution: Agricultural Shifts, Urbanization, and Labor Movements
Agricultural Innovations
Farming Techniques: The traditional three-field system of crop rotation was replaced by the more efficient four-field system. Land was divided into four fields, alternating wheat, turnips, barley, and clover. Clover helped to replenish soil nutrients, preventing depletion. Additionally, turnips and clover were used to feed livestock, allowing farmers to keep more animals. This, in turn, increased the availability of manure, a natural fertilizer, for the fields.
Impact of Industrialization and Urbanization
The Industrial Revolution led to the mechanization of farm work and transformed cities into centers of production. Many peasants migrated to cities in search of work, resulting in intense urbanization across Europe. In 1800, only 10% of the population lived in cities, but by the late 19th century, this figure rose to 40%. Cities at the time often lacked the capacity to absorb the entire rural population. As a result, approximately 60 million Europeans emigrated, a movement facilitated by the transport revolution.
Emergence of Labor Movements
In Britain, factory workers began organizing themselves to pressure factory owners for improved working conditions. Key movements included:
- Luddism: A response to new technologies that caused skilled workers to lose their jobs in the textile industry. Some workers reacted by destroying factory machines.
- Chartism: The first organized labor movement with explicit political goals. This movement presented its charter to the British Parliament, advocating for workers’ rights.
- Trade Unions: Societies formed to assist members in cases of illness or unemployment. These associations of workers demanded better salaries, shorter workdays, and an end to child labor, among other improvements.