European Unification & Spanish Monarchies (1814-1874)
Italian Unification (1859-1870)
Factors that caused a growth in nationalism:
- The Congress of Vienna
- Nationalist and liberal successes in other countries
- The failure of the revolutions of 1848
- Important figures supported Italian unification
The unification process was initiated by Piedmont-Sardinia.
German Unification (1866-1871)
It began as a result of these factors:
- After the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation was divided into 39 states, united by the Federal Diet (parliament).
- Liberal and nationalist ideas were popular.
- The Frankfurt Parliament tried to create a unified state with universal manhood suffrage.
- In 1834, a customs union (the Zollverein) had been established.
Otto Von Bismarck, named Chancellor of Prussia in 1862, started the process of unification. In Prussia, nationalism was strong, and it had a large army and a developed economy. Bismarck expelled the Austrians from the German Confederation at the Battle of Sadowa in 1866, which achieved the unification.
The second phase of unification: Bismarck defeated Napoleon III, who wanted to limit Prussian expansion, and Prussia annexed Alsace-Lorraine from France. The German states decided to unite with Prussia, and Germany became the Second Reich, with Berlin as its capital and Wilhelm I as emperor.
The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)
The absolutist phase (1814-1820): He agreed with the absolutists’ demands, so he dismissed the Cortes, abolished the Constitution of 1812, and re-established absolute monarchy.
The liberal phase (1820-1823): Liberals organized military coups every year, and a coup led by Riego and Quiroga succeeded. He was forced to reinstate the constitution.
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833): In 1823, he asked the Holy Alliance for assistance. They sent a French army, the 100,000 Sons of St. Louis, who defeated the liberals, and he re-established absolute monarchy.
Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)
Absolutism ended in Spain with the reign of Isabel II. She established a liberal constitutional monarchy, although it had its own special features:
- The crown retained power, but this power was shared with the Cortes. This was called shared sovereignty.
- The queen was supported by the liberal political parties, the Moderates and the Progressives.
- Various constitutions were approved.
- The military participated actively in politics.
Regency Period (1833-1843)
From 1833 to 1843, when Isabel was still a minor, two regents governed in her name: her mother, Maria Cristina Bourbon, and General Espartero, who was a Progressive. During this period, the First Carlist War took place, and the monarchy changed from absolute to liberal.
The First Carlist War (1833-1839) took place because Fernando VII’s brother, Carlos, claimed the throne and did not accept either the Pragmatic Sanction or Isabel II as queen. He was supported in the war by the absolutists and by those who supported the fueros. In 1839, the Convention of Vergara was signed. In this treaty, Isabel was recognized as Queen of Spain.
Important Features of Her Reign
- Alternation in power between the Moderates and the Progressives.
- Second Carlist War (1846-1849): The war was caused by Isabel II’s refusal to marry Carlos Luis Borbon.
- Spanish division into 49 provinces.
- Social instability.
- Expropriations that aimed to solve Spain’s economic problems.
The Crisis and End of Isabel II’s Reign
- Political problems.
- Manipulation of election results.
- New political parties who opposed the monarchy.
- Major economic crisis.
The Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874)
In 1868, a military revolt began, led by Admiral Topete, Generals Prim and Serrano, causing the Glorious Revolution. It had 3 phases:
The Provisional Government (1868-1870)
They looked for a new king for Spain and they also called the Constituent Cortes in order to write a new constitution, and this constitution was the most democratic one.
The Constitutional Monarchy (1871-1873)
Amadeo of Savoy was named King of Spain.
During his reign, the Third Carlist War (1872-1876) began because the provisional government had not chosen the Carlist candidate, Carlos VII, as king.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
When Amadeo I abdicated, the Cortes proclaimed Spain a republic. The main problem the republic faced was the divisions among the Republicans. Alternatives included a federal republic, a centralized, or unitary, republic. During the republic, there were four different presidents in one year: Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmeron, and Castelar.