European Transformation: Modern States & Renaissance Culture

Posted on Jun 21, 2025 in History

The Modern State Emerges

  • Monarchs became more powerful, reformed existing institutions, and created new ones.
  • Their main objectives:
    • Consolidate their authority
    • Control the power of the nobility
    • Administer the kingdom’s resources
    • Maintain a strong position of power in relation to other monarchs
  • They formed powerful armies of mercenaries and prohibited the nobles from forming their own armies.
  • They strengthened bureaucracy, with officials directly under their control.
  • Centralized power by creating new institutions. The autonomy of the feudal lords and special legislations introduced in the Middle Ages was gradually reduced.
  • Monarchs established a court or permanent seat, which in many cases became the capital of their kingdom.
  • A new political organization emerged as a result of these reforms, called the Modern State.
  • The most powerful monarchies were: The Spanish, Portuguese, French, English, and Russian monarchies.

Western European Monarchies

  • The Spanish Monarchy: Formed by the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.
  • The French Monarchy: Gained power after the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453). From 1562, France was involved in bloody religious wars. At the end of the 16th century, Henry IV established the Bourbon Dynasty.
  • The English Monarchy: Consolidated itself after the civil war. In the 16th century, the Tudor Dynasty came to power. Henry VIII confronted the Pope, and Elizabeth I defeated Philip II, maintaining the kingdom’s independence.

Small States of Europe

  • The Holy Roman Empire: A multitude of kingdoms, including Austria, Burgundy, Flanders, Saxony, Switzerland, and Bohemia. The emperors were not able to unify them.
  • Italy: Remained divided into small principalities. French and Spanish kings fought over control of the region.

Eastern European Monarchies

  • The Ottoman (Turkish) Empire: Expanded during the 15th century.
  • The Russian Monarchy: Expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries.
  • The Polish Monarchy: Expanded after its unification with Lithuania.

Cultural Transformation: Renaissance and Humanism

  • Ideas spread rapidly due to an important invention: the printing press.

Humanist Philosophy

  • Humanism emerged in Italy and spread throughout Europe.
  • Key characteristics:
    • Renewed interest in classical culture: Classical Greek and Roman culture.
    • Anthropocentrism: Humans became the center of philosophical reflection and artistic creation. They abandoned theocentrism, trying to explain reality without religion.
    • Optimism and creativity: Belief in a better life in this world. Creativity was oriented towards obtaining better techniques, resulting in numerous inventions.
    • Desire for knowledge: Great intellectual curiosity, a drive to learn about everything and become a ‘Renaissance Man’.
    • Critical Thinking:
      • Reason
      • Research
      • Experimentation
    • The use of vernacular languages: Previously, most books were written in Latin. Humanists began writing their works in languages spoken in their countries, which allowed more people to access culture and new knowledge.

Scientific Advances and the Spread of New Ideas

  • Great advances in technology and scientific knowledge. The astronomer Copernicus proposed the heliocentric hypothesis. Anatomical studies also led to discoveries about the human body.
  • The invention of the movable-type printing press by Gutenberg: The first book printed in 1455 was a Bible. This allowed new ideas to reach more people through books.
  • Creation of cultural institutions: sciences and arts academies. The new humanist philosophy was also spread from many universities, such as those in Rome, Bologna, and Padua.