European Revolutions of 1848: Causes and Consequences
The Revolutions of 1848: The Third Wave
The revolutions of 1848 were the most significant revolutionary wave in European history, definitively breaking the balance established by the Congress of Vienna. They also expressed social approaches and democratic ideals. We are facing a non-homogeneous Europe. Germany was marked by absolutism and police systems, with a strong emphasis on order over freedom. In France, the revolution of 1830 had not established democratic principles. Austria was still under the influence of Metternich, and the ancien régime remained consolidated. In England, there was a movement for political and social reform known as the Chartist movement (Charter of the People), which sought greater participation in political life. From a social perspective, tensions existed between the bourgeoisie and the lower-middle classes. There were also a number of economic causes: the crisis of 1846 and 1847, which included an agricultural crisis (bad crops in those two years, affecting basic staples such as potatoes and cereals), an industrial crisis (due to lack of demand), and a financial crisis (lack of demand led to reduced profits and a stock market crash).
France
In France, there was a widespread desire for reform and greater political participation. Universal suffrage was requested. Opposition to Louis Philippe grew steadily. The suspension of an opposition banquet triggered the revolution, leading to the king’s abdication. A provisional government was formed, composed of moderate Republicans, Democrats, and Socialists, who implemented reform programs and actions: universal male suffrage for men over 21, the abolition of slavery in the colonies, freedom of the press and assembly, a reduction in working hours, and the establishment of social or national workshops by Louis Blanc (a utopian socialist), to provide jobs for the unemployed. Income from these workshops was to be divided for reinvestment, to pay salaries and benefits, and to create new workshops. A Constituent Assembly was convened to draft a new constitution in November 1848. This constitution included universal suffrage, national sovereignty, and a unicameral legislature renewable every three years. New elections gave victory to the moderates, and some order returned. The revolution of 1848 lost at the polls what it had won in the streets. The triumph of the moderates in April at the polls led to no worker candidates being elected. The National Workshops were closed, and Blanc was removed. A new revolutionary attempt was led by Auguste Blanqui.
This revolutionary, who proposed a series of phases in the revolutionary struggle of the workers (including the seizure of power through armed force), ultimately saw the Republic succeed Louis Napoleon Bonaparte after new elections in December. New, more reactionary measures appeared: the end of press freedom, the restriction of universal suffrage (requiring a minimum of three years of residence), and the refusal of a constitutional change. In 1851, Bonaparte dissolved the assembly and organized a plebiscite to be reelected. This would lead to the Second French Empire, lasting until 1870. In the revolution of 1848, the masses took to the streets. Law enforcement was restored as barricades arose, followed by shootings, and ended with the king’s abdication. The initial simplicity gave way to elements of violence, especially with the supporters of Blanqui. In this revolutionary process, there was also organization with leaders who were not merely occasional figures. A party emerged that was present in every revolution. There was a sense of joy in the revolution, a feeling of building a new society from the ground up. However, the process would have an ending that was not common in revolutions: defeat at the polls.
Austria, Germany, Italy
The revolutionary wave passed through Hungary in March, changing the direction of the Diet and government and creating a lower house elected by census suffrage. In Bohemia and Vienna, also in March, the revolutions forced the fall of Metternich. Liberals convened elections for a constituent assembly. In Italy, movements occurred to shake off foreign occupation. In Parma and Modena, the Dukes were expelled. The revolution arrived in Milan in late March and then spread to Venice. In Germany, insurrections occurred in all states for civil liberties and an end to seigneurial rights. The emerging bourgeoisie grew significantly, while popular participation was minimal due to the structural vassalage. In the second half of 1848, the revolutions began to fail and were stifled. Austria regained control of Bohemia and Italy and helped to control Hungary with the aid of Nicholas I of Russia. In Italy, there was an attempt to restore the Old Regime. Charles Albert of Piedmont was defeated and abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel. In Germany, the revolution resulted in the formation of a Germany without Austria, under the tutelage of Prussia. A conservative and monarchical constitution was maintained, along with a federal assembly.
Reasons for Failure
The failure of these revolutions had several reasons:
- Economic: An unfavorable situation led to a crisis in the 1870s.
- Ideological: A lack of resolve among the people, who were unsure of their goals. The peasantry feared socialism, and the vast majority rejected anything that resembled sharing their hard-won gains. Bourgeois groups slowed down any further progress in these opening lines. They opposed social reforms but later accepted them. Labor groups had begun to develop.
By mid-century, an ideological process was underway. Liberalism developed, both politically and economically. From the second half of the century, the hallmark would be a combination of liberalism and conservative imperialism.
The Congress of Vienna and its Aftermath
The Congress of Vienna coincided with the development of unstoppable forces that led to industrial development, favored by the middle class and driven by liberal principles that conflicted with the traditional model. There was a search for ways to limit political power, ways to combine order and freedom, leading to a refusal to accept absolutism and management processes that limited freedom.
The Congress of Vienna was full of contradictions in its final act. It did not prohibit constitutions in the different countries or constitutional processes. Thus, Sweden retained its constitution of 1809. Constituent assemblies were held in many other countries (Switzerland, Netherlands), and charters were granted in France (1814) and Poland (1815). There was an apparent traditional order, but forces were moving towards freedom and maintaining an attitude with modern features.
This situation would trigger a series of revolutionary waves in the 1820s, 1830s, and 1840s that would ultimately dismantle the Restoration system and lead to the consolidation of liberal ideals.