European Power Shifts: Louis XIV, Mercantilism, and 17th-Century Conflicts
Louis XIV of France: The Absolute Monarch
Louis XIV of France stands as the best example of an absolute monarch. He took control of the government and ruled according to his own wish, without a Prime Minister and without asking advice from the États-Généraux (Estates-General). He viewed himself as the direct representative of God, awarded with a divine right to exert the absolute power of the monarchy.
To illustrate his status, he chose the sun as his symbol. He cultivated the image of an infallible “Roi-Soleil” (Sun King) around whom the entire realm orbited. He centralized power and tightened control of France. He used art as a propaganda tool to promote and glorify himself and his absolute rule. A prime example is the Versailles Palace.
Establishment of a New Economic System: Mercantilism
Mercantilism was an economic system according to which a country’s wealth and power depended on the quantity of silver and gold that it owned. Consequently, countries pursued a positive balance of trade (low imports and high exports) that would bring gold and silver into the country.
Therefore, this system led to:
- State Intervention: Countries undertook protectionist policies:
- High tariffs on foreign products (imports).
- Promotion of national manufactures inside the country and abroad.
- Conquest of New Markets: Countries tried to colonize territories to provide new customers for their manufactures and raw materials (to avoid having to import them).
The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)
Origin: An Internal Revolt in the Holy Roman Empire
The war originated from a revolt of Protestant princes against the new Catholic Emperor, Ferdinand II. It all began in the Kingdom of Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) when a Catholic, Ferdinand II, was elected King in 1617.
The new king soon began to restrain the religious freedom of the population in Bohemia: He closed and forbade the construction of Protestant churches. This made him very unpopular given the great number of Protestants, including some nobles, in the kingdom.
In 1618, the representatives of the king in Prague were captured by a group of Protestant nobles and threw them out of the palace window! Although injured, they survived! This event, known as the Defenestration of Prague, started the Bohemian Revolt.
Soon afterward, the Bohemian conflict spread through all Germany and eventually across the whole continent of Europe, involving Spain, France, Sweden, and a number of other countries. It was the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War.
End of the War: The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Spain and the German Emperor were defeated. The representatives of the belligerent estates held negotiations in what is known as the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which put an end to:
- The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)
- The Eighty Years’ War (1566–1648) between Spain and the United Provinces.
Main Consequences of the Peace of Westphalia
- Weakened the Holy Roman Empire:
- Increased autonomy of the states that integrated the Empire. German princes gained independence and limited the power of the Emperor.
- Religious freedom was established (each prince had the right to decide the religion of his own state), marking the end of the Religion Wars in Europe.
- Weakened Spain: Formally recognized the independence of the United Provinces.
- Strengthened France: They annexed some German territories (Metz, Verdun, Alsace).
The Franco-Spanish War (1648-1659)
Origin and Main Reason
This war was a continuation of the fights between Spain and France. The main reason was that the French annexations in the Peace of Westphalia cut off the Spanish access to the Low Countries from Milan.
Outcome and Treaty
Spain was defeated (again!). The conflict concluded with the Treaty of the Pyrenees:
- France annexed Roussillon.
- The marriage of Felipe IV’s daughter, Maria Teresa, was arranged with the French King Louis XIV.