European Imperialism in the 19th Century
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism is the extension of one country’s domination over others. The conquering country is the metropolis, and the conquered territories are the colonies. Imperialism wasn’t new; great empires existed in antiquity. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain and Portugal were the most important imperial powers. However, imperialism reached its peak in the 19th century with new players: Britain and France, alongside other European countries and non-European empires. In contrast, Spain lost its colonies in Latin America and the Pacific. This expansion was rapid: in 1800, 35% of the world’s land was controlled by Europe and the USA; by 1914, this figure was 84%. Europe effectively controlled the world. This rapid conquest was possible due to the military superiority of the colonizing powers.
Factors Driving Imperialism
Economic Factors
The increased production of the Industrial Revolution made colonies important as new markets free from customs taxes. They also provided spaces for capital investment through public works like railways and ports, and loans. Resource-rich territories provided raw materials for European industries.
Political Factors
Powers seized strategically important locations to control major land and sea routes. Territorial expansion increased a country’s prestige and fueled national pride.
Demographic Factors
Western populations grew rapidly in the 19th century. Millions of Europeans emigrated to the colonies, mitigating unemployment and social unrest. Governments actively managed these migrations.
Ideological Factors
19th-century Western racist ideologies fueled imperialism. Europeans believed in the superiority of the white race, justifying their domination of other peoples, whom they considered inferior. They felt a duty to ‘civilize’ these populations, often through conversion to Christianity. Scientific curiosity also played a role.
From 1870, geographical societies in Britain, France, Germany, and the U.S. launched scientific expeditions. The country that organized the expedition claimed the right to conquer and exploit the explored territory. European civilization spread through migrants, missionaries, and traders.
The Great Colonial Empires (1870-1914)
The British Empire was the largest, followed by the French. This expansion led to friction between powers. The early 19th century saw a decline in colonialism, but it returned from 1830, with England conquering India and France beginning the conquest of Algeria. The process accelerated after 1870, with powers dividing continents. The Berlin Conference of 1885 saw the partition of Africa among European powers. By the early 20th century, imperialist expansion had largely ended. Africa had only two independent states: Ethiopia and Liberia. Asian empires, while unconquered, faced increasing Western control. Latin America, independent from Spain and Portugal, remained economically dependent on Europe and later the U.S.
The British Empire
The British Empire reached its peak during the reign of Victoria I. It held colonies on every continent and controlled strategic shipping routes, with India as its most important colony.
The French Empire
France occupied lands in North Africa and Indochina.
Other countries held smaller empires: Belgium in the Congo, Germany in southern Africa, Italy in Tripoli, Eritrea, and Somalia. Russia expanded across Siberia to India’s border. After defeating Spain in 1898, the U.S. occupied the Philippines and Puerto Rico and controlled Cuba. Japan annexed Korea and Taiwan and established a protectorate in Manchuria.
The Impact of Imperialism
The race for colonies increased tensions between European powers, threatening peace. Some powers, like Germany, felt their empires didn’t reflect their importance, leading to demands for new territories.