European History: Revolutions, Empires, and Social Change
The Ancien Régime: State-Based Society
The social structure of the Ancien Régime was divided into three distinct estates:
First Estate: Nobility
The nobility held the highest status. They were wealthy, powerful, and typically lived in castles or large estates. They received income and privileges but were exempt from paying taxes.
Second Estate: Clergy
The clergy were also privileged. They often lived in cities and wielded significant power due to the populace’s religious belief and the Church’s influence.
Third Estate: Commoners (Bourgeoisie and Workers)
This estate comprised the workers, peasants, and the bourgeoisie. They bore the burden of taxation, funding the lifestyles of the First and Second Estates.
The War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714)
When Charles II of Spain died without an heir, Philip of Anjou (a Bourbon) was named his successor. Archduke Charles of Austria was the alternative candidate.
Philip accepted the Spanish crown, but this triggered a major European conflict. Great Britain and other powers feared the potential union of France and Spain under Bourbon rule, leading to the War of Spanish Succession.
Ultimately, Philip won the war and became King of Spain (Philip V). However, he was required to promise that the Spanish and French crowns would remain permanently separated, ensuring the balance of power in Europe.
The Matxinada (Grain Riots)
The Matxinada was characterized by severe economic distress. Poor citizens lacked sufficient funds for food, and the price of grain was rapidly increasing. Those hoarding grain claimed shortages, waiting for prices to peak before selling.
On April 14th, a group, described here as a cavalry, arrived to seize grain. As they departed the town, citizens intercepted them and forced them to return the stolen goods. When questioned, the group replied that their actions were intended to force down the price of grain. This explanation temporarily calmed the populace, who returned to their homes.
Later that evening, people from Azpeitia and Urrestila gathered with instruments. They proceeded to Azkoitia to meet others before returning to Azpeitia. Their initial intent was to protest high prices through acts of violence—burning houses, robbery, and causing injury—but ultimately, they refrained from action. Nevertheless, the following day, grain prices dropped significantly and remained low until August.
The Enlightenment Movement
The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement originating in Europe, often traced back to England. Its core goal was to improve human life and society through reason and scientific inquiry, influencing several key areas:
Education
Institutions were founded to promote knowledge and standardization. For example, the establishment of the Real Academia de la Lengua (Royal Academy of the Language) reflects this focus on cultural and linguistic refinement.
Economy
Enlightenment thinkers advocated for reduced government control in economic affairs (Laissez-faire), promoting the use of new techniques and rational management.
Society
The movement championed the idea of equality for all citizens, challenging the rigid hierarchies of the Ancien Régime.
Politics
A fundamental principle was the division of political power (separation of powers), intended to prevent tyranny and ensure liberty.
Napoleon Bonaparte: From Consulate to Empire
By 1799, France faced political instability following the Revolution, marked by internal conflicts and revolts. General Napoleon Bonaparte seized control by organizing a military coup, establishing a new political system known as the Consulate.
Napoleon was initially hailed as a hero for his military victories across Europe. Although he named himself Head of State, his ambition grew, culminating in his self-proclamation as Emperor. His ultimate goal was to conquer and unify all of Europe.
Napoleon successfully defeated most countries allied against France, with the notable exceptions of Great Britain and Portugal. He attempted to cripple British trade through the Continental System, closing European ports to English merchants.
However, his power began to wane after 1812, primarily due to the disastrous division of his forces. He split his army to campaign simultaneously in Russia and Portugal, resulting in massive losses of soldiers and a significant reduction in his authority.
His reign ended following his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, where he was arrested by the English Army. He was subsequently exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.
Napoleonic Reforms
During his rule, Napoleon implemented profound political and social changes in France:
- He replaced outdated absolutist laws with the comprehensive Napoleonic Code.
- He established equality for all citizens before the law.
- He guaranteed religious freedom.
- He created a state system of education for all children.
- He worked to improve the economic situation in France.
The Congress of Vienna and New Ideologies (1815)
The Congress of Vienna convened in 1815 as European monarchs met to suppress the revolutionary ideas that had spread across the continent and restore the pre-Napoleonic order. However, the bourgeoisie, having gained political influence during the French Revolution, strongly opposed the return to absolute monarchy. This conflict led to the crystallization of two major political ideologies:
Absolutism
Championed by the traditional monarchs, Absolutism asserted that the monarch held supreme, divinely sanctioned power, which could only be altered by the monarch himself.
Liberalism and Nationalism
Driven primarily by the bourgeoisie, this ideology drew heavily from the principles of the Enlightenment, the American and French Revolutions, and the parliamentary system of Great Britain. It demanded constitutional governance, popular sovereignty, and the right for power structures to be changed by the people.
The French Revolution (1789–1799)
The French Revolution began largely because King Louis XVI sought to raise taxes to address severe financial problems. This required convening the Estates-General, representing the three social orders.
The situation was highly unequal: the First and Second Estates (Nobility and Clergy) held disproportionate power and refused to pay taxes, insisting the burden fall entirely upon the Third Estate (the commoners and bourgeoisie). The Third Estate, suffering economic hardship, demanded greater political representation.
Eventually, the government allowed all three estates to participate, but insisted on voting by order (one vote per estate). Since the Third Estate represented the vast majority of the population, they demanded voting by head. When this was denied, they declared themselves the National Assembly.
The revolution escalated dramatically. Ultimately, the citizens executed the King (Louis XVI) and his wife (Marie Antoinette) by guillotine. Neighboring monarchical countries, fearing the spread of revolutionary ideas, formed coalitions and waged war against France. The revolutionary period concluded in 1799 with the arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte.