European History: 19th and Early 20th Centuries
ITEM 6: The Irish Problem
A minority of British Anglicans settled in Catholic Ireland. This created three intertwined problems: social, religious, and economic. A serious political problem existed because Ireland ceased to have its own parliament, and their representatives in Westminster were part of an intergovernmental parliament. This can be considered normal for a nationalist movement that was born for greater autonomy or even independence. From abroad, independent movements were financed and managed. The situation in Ireland remained explosive, and its solution, independence, was only partially carried out after the First World War.
The Empire of Napoleon III
The constitution of 1852 granted Napoleon both executive and military power and the right to intervene in other powers.
- In the 1850s, Napoleon’s first objective was the maintenance of order. For this, he strengthened the police in cities and the gendarmerie in rural areas.
- In the 1860s, Napoleon adopted liberalization measures such as amnesty for political prisoners, legalization of associations, and recognition of workers’ right to strike.
These liberalization measures contrasted with his failures in foreign policy. France was defeated by German troops in Sedan, which was accompanied by a very severe economic crisis that increased unemployment and social discontent. These negative elements led to the downfall of the emperor and the proclamation of the Third Republic.
The Austrian Empire and the Creation of the Dual Monarchy
Since the revolution of 1848, this empire was led by Franz Joseph I, who tried to keep a conservative and authoritarian system. The aspects characterizing his government were:
- The increase in spending on bureaucracy and politics.
- The privileged position that the Catholic Church reached.
- The boost to trade and industry.
The Problem of the Balkans
The Ottoman Empire, which was in decline, had a strip from Constantinople to the Adriatic. The rest was a complex map of states of different political entities. During 1912 and 1913, there were two wars in the Balkans. In the first, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece clashed against the Ottomans. In the second, Serbia, Greece, and Turkey fought against Bulgaria. Thus, countries were organizing as partnerships, and war was always a latent possibility. The Austrian government, with support from Germany, sent an ultimatum to Serbia so that the state would allow the investigation of the facts. But Serbia, backed by Russia, refused this request, which it saw as interference in its internal affairs. Thus, on July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia, to help Serbia, mobilized its troops to the German and Austrian borders, so Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, and on France on August 3. On August 6, Serbia formally declared war on Germany, and Austria-Hungary did the same with Russia. Finally, on August 11 and 12, France and Britain broke hostilities with Austria-Hungary. The invasion of German troops in Belgium caused England to also enter the war. On August 6, Serbia declared war on Germany, and Austria-Hungary did the same with Russia.
The Formation of Blocks
In 1904, France and Britain formalized an agreement to settle their rivalries. This agreement amounted to:
- The end of “splendid isolation” for France.
- France surrendering any claim to Egypt.
- The United Kingdom having a free hand in Egypt and ensuring control of Gibraltar.
Germany came out injured, as it was now facing a Russia allied with France and with British support. When the Triple Entente between Britain, France, and Russia was signed, two military blocs were observed. Although the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) staggered at the accession of Italy. Simultaneously, France had managed to come to an agreement with Italy, first with a trade agreement, which was turned into a secret agreement in 1902. Thus, in the early 20th century, two military blocs were already formed, and war could have broken out repeatedly. It did not explode because none of the blocs was determined to declare war.
ITEM 4: The Counter-Revolution
Following Napoleon’s defeat, the victorious Great Powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain) promoted the restoration of absolute monarchies. From a political standpoint, it was a return to the past, but this was faced with the position of both liberalism and nationalism. From an ideological standpoint, traditionalism advocated order, the Catholic religion, and the lawyers of the absolute monarchies, resulting in the slogan “of throne and altar.” From a historical point of view, they tried to ignore the political gains made during the revolution and empire. The results were that in France, the Bourbon dynasty was restored with Louis XVIII, the feudal regime remained, and the distribution of land. In Spain, Ferdinand VII annulled the Court of Cadiz and restored absolutism.
Congress of Vienna and the New Map of Europe
The European powers that defeated Napoleon met in the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the European map. The principles underlying this conference were:
a) The legitimacy of the kings against national sovereignty.
b) The balance between the victorious powers.
c) The solidarity of the states in defense of religion and absolute monarchy.
But more effective was the Quadruple Alliance treaty to use military intervention against liberal uprisings. The new European map was used for the benefit of the larger states. Russia expanded at the expense of Poland, also taking part of the Turkish Empire. Austria annexed the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany (Italy). Part of Prussia and the Rhineland went to Saxony, which was going to have borders with France. Britain seized the islands of Malta and Sicily, and the Ionian Islands, near Greece. They agreed to establish the old regime, liberalism, and nationalism.
ITEM 1: Demographic System
Under the old regime, society was rural and agrarian. Their demographic system showed a close interdependence between population growth and the agricultural economy. European populations of the former regime had common features: a high birth rate, high mortality rate, and natural growth. These populations were subject to pests, diseases, crises, hunger, and war. Epidermal diseases caused enormous tragedies to children and young people. The subsistence crisis was another factor, along with wars, for extraordinary mortality. These factors explain the existence of stagnation, setbacks, or slow population growth.
Absolute Monarchy
The form of government was absolute monarchy by divine right. Absolute sovereignty justified the king’s powers, which he had received from God. In states where absolute monarchy was weak and the aristocracy powerful, the monarchy had to share its sovereignty with the privileged classes. The new major powers with strong absolute monarchies had created a powerful army and an effective bureaucracy throughout the eighteenth century. In the great traditional monarchies of Europe, royal autocracy had no limits or control other than the limited monarchy of Great Britain. The British Parliament, consisting of two chambers, had a predominantly rural and aristocratic character.
Enlightened Absolutism
The absolutist state met changes in its operation. With the established political system, known as enlightened despotism, it was pretended that the monarch was no longer the owner of the kingdom but the first server of the national community. The absolutism of the eighteenth century, called enlightened despotism, can be defined as the use of enlightened ideology to maintain absolutism, with the motto “everything for the people, but without the people.” They refused to accept that political freedom was born of the bourgeoisie, which gave an impulse to politics, but this brought with it many revolutions.