European Discoveries and Renaissance: A Transformation
1. The Rise of European States
A. The 15th Century: Demographic and Economic Growth
The shift towards the Modern Age (16th-18th centuries) began in the mid-15th century with the emergence of powerful monarchies. Several factors contributed to this:
- Urban Revival: From the late Middle Ages, European cities grew in number and population. City dwellers, unlike feudal subjects, were protected by and paid taxes to the monarchy.
- Resurgence of Roman Law: Universities like Bologna and Salamanca revived Roman law, emphasizing the monarchy as the sole legislator.
- Control of the Nobility: Kings consolidated power by subduing the nobility through battles or peaceful agreements and marriages.
B. Consolidation of Power
Authoritarian monarchies used several strategies to strengthen their control:
- Territorial Unification: Through conquest or marriage, monarchies unified realms to create powerful states, even expanding into Africa to secure trade routes.
- Standing Armies: Kings established permanent armies, increasing taxes but gaining military independence from the nobility.
- Centralized Administration: Royal officials, advisors, and judges were appointed to manage state affairs.
- Royal Marriages: Strategic marriages, sometimes “cross-marriages,” forged alliances and potential inheritance.
- High Courts: Monarchs established supreme courts to resolve legal disputes.
- Taxation: New taxes were levied on citizens, exempting nobility and clergy.
- Diplomacy: Ambassadors were appointed to represent royal interests and resolve conflicts peacefully.
Examples: Louis XII and Francis I (France), Henry VII and VIII (England), Catholic Monarchs (Spain).
The Catholic Monarchs:
- Unified Castile, Aragon, Granada, Roussillon, Cerdanya, and Navarre.
- Religious unification: Expulsion of Jews and Muslims.
- Expansion into North Africa and Southern Italy.
- Centralized administration: Councils, Holy Brotherhood, courts, and aldermen.
- Subdued the nobility.
- Strategic marriages with European princes.
2. Exploration, Conquest, and Colonization of the Americas
The fall of Byzantium to the Ottomans in 1453 spurred the search for new spice routes to the East. Columbus, funded by the Catholic Monarchs, sought a westward route to China and Japan.
A. Voyages of Discovery
New technologies like the compass, astrolabe, and caravel facilitated exploration. Columbus’s voyage in 1492 led to the “discovery” of the Americas. Other key expeditions included Vasco Núñez de Balboa’s discovery of the Pacific (1513), Magellan and Elcano’s circumnavigation (1519-1522), and Francisco de Orellana’s Amazon exploration (1542).
B. Conquest of America
The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal. The Spanish encountered three major civilizations: the Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas. Superior weaponry, internal conflicts among indigenous peoples, and centralized empires facilitated the Spanish conquest.
Stages of Conquest:
- Aztec Empire (conquered by Hernán Cortés, 1521)
- Mayan Empire (conquered by Cortés)
- Inca Empire (conquered by Pizarro and Almagro)
- Southern regions (conquered by Valdivia and Mendoza)
C. Colonization and Administration
Following the conquest (completed by 1560), Spain established viceroyalties and high courts (audiencias) in America. The Casa de Contratación in Seville and the Consejo de Indias in Castile oversaw colonial affairs.
The “Indian Question”:
Debate arose over the treatment of indigenous populations, with opposing views from Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (pro-subjugation) and Bartolomé de las Casas (defender of indigenous rights). The Laws of Burgos and the New Laws aimed to protect indigenous people.
Consequences of Conquest:
- Influx of precious metals
- Introduction of new crops (corn, tomatoes, potatoes)
- Expansion of trade
3. Renaissance Art in Italy
A. Characteristics
- 15th century (Quattrocento) centered in Florence; 16th century (Cinquecento) centered in Rome.
- Revival of classical Greek and Roman models.
- Humanism: Focus on human potential.
- Art as a display of power.
- Artistic autonomy and individuality.
- Classical architecture (arches, domes).
- Sculptural realism.
- Painting: Perspective and natural landscapes.
B. Masters: Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo
Leonardo da Vinci:
- Humanist, engineer, inventor, painter.
- Master of drawing and perspective.
- Triangular compositions, sfumato technique.
- Key works: Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, Virgin of the Rocks.
Raphael:
- Balanced, symmetrical compositions, idealized figures.
- Key works: The School of Athens, Sistine Madonna, The Transfiguration.
Michelangelo:
- Sculptor, painter, architect, poet.
- Dynamic, powerful figures (terribilità).
- Key works: David, Sistine Chapel ceiling, St. Peter’s Basilica dome.
4. Renaissance Art in Spain
A. Characteristics
- 15th century: Renaissance blended with Gothic.
- 16th century: Full embrace of Renaissance style.
- Influences from Flanders and Italy.
- Patronage from the Church and monarchy.
B. Architecture: Juan de Herrera and El Escorial
Phases of Spanish Renaissance Architecture:
- Plateresque (late 15th century): Ornate, grotesque decorations.
- Romanesque (early 16th century): Classical structures and elements.
- Purism (late 16th century): Austere, geometric style.
El Escorial:
- Symbol of Philip II’s reign.
- Monastery, palace, royal mausoleum.
- Designed by Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera.
C. Sculpture: Alonso Berruguete
- Expressive, dramatic style.
- Elongated figures.
- Key works: Altarpiece of San Benito, Tomb of Cardinal Tavera.
D. Painting: El Greco
- Byzantine, Venetian, and Mannerist influences.
- Elongated figures, vibrant colors.
- Key works: The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, View of Toledo.