European Colonialism and Pre-War Tensions
Africa’s Colonial Division
The Scramble for Africa: Following America’s independence in 1824, European powers, including France, Britain, Germany, Portugal, Italy, and Spain, intensified their colonial ambitions in Africa. By 1880, much of Africa was under European control, with Britain leading the partition. Cecil Rhodes aimed to connect British territories from north to south (Egypt to Rwanda), while France preferred horizontal colonization. The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) established rules for European colonization and trade along the Congo River. France gained control of the Mediterranean coast, except for Libya. France and Britain cooperated on the Suez Canal (opened 1869) for trade. By the end of the 19th century, France fully controlled Algeria and its western coast. Portugal maintained its presence in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea. Germany acquired Cameroon, German South-West Africa, and German East Africa. Spain secured a small protectorate in Morocco (Tetouan) and territories in Western Sahara and Fernando Po.
Bismarck’s Alliance Systems
Bismarck’s Diplomatic Strategy: Otto von Bismarck, the German Chancellor, skillfully managed European diplomacy to prevent conflicts and wars from 1872 to 1888. His alliance systems aimed to isolate France and prevent its revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine.
- First System (1872): Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary signed a treaty of mutual aid and peace.
- Second System (1881): Italy joined, forming the Triple Alliance.
- Third System (1887): A reinsurance treaty was established between Germany and Russia, with Britain and Italy joining a Mediterranean agreement.
Pre-War Crises
First Moroccan Crisis (1904-1906): France occupied Morocco in 1904. In 1905, the German Emperor visited Tangier, proclaiming Morocco’s independence. Germany demanded concessions, which France accepted only if Italy and Russia supported Germany. The Algeciras Conference (1906) granted France and Spain control over Moroccan ports, strengthening the Anglo-French Entente.
First Balkan Crisis: Serbia sought to unite South Slavs against Austria-Hungary, initiating a hostile policy. Russia’s interests in the Balkans grew. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, increasing Austro-Russian tensions to a breaking point. War was narrowly averted as France supported Russia, and Germany pressured Russia to de-escalate.
Second Moroccan Crisis (1911): France occupied Fez, and Germany sent the gunboat Panther. France, backed by Britain, resisted. An agreement was reached where Germany accepted French control of Morocco in exchange for parts of the French Congo. This exacerbated nationalism in France and Germany, strengthening the Triple Entente due to concerns over German actions.
Second Balkan Crisis: Germany accepted Turkey’s resignation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in return for compensation. The Balkan states (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro) declared war on Turkey to seize its remaining European territories. Russia’s support led to a Balkan victory, with territories divided among the victors. In 1913, war erupted again between the victors, with Serbs and Bulgarians fighting, supported by Greeks and Turks. The Treaty of Bucharest concluded the conflict, with Bulgaria as the main loser and Serbia emerging as a significant power, posing a challenge to Austrian interests.
Impact of War
Total War and Societal Effects: World War I affected nearly the entire global population, as colonial powers brought the war to their colonies. Propaganda promoted patriotic values. The war impacted social structures, including trade unions, which operated beyond their budgets. Important associations were established, and exiles sought refuge.