European Alliances, Imperialism, and World War I

Posted on Dec 8, 2025 in History

1. European Alliance Systems (1871–1914)

Bismarck’s Alliance systems were military alliances between Germany & the main European powers (Russia, Austria, Italy & UK) designed to isolate France.

  • The European Balance broke after the Italian & German unifications.
  • Two stages in European international relations:
  1. 1871 – 1890: Bismarck’s Alliance Systems: Secret military alliances intended to isolate France (who sought revenge due to the loss of Alsace & Lorraine).
  2. 1891 – 1914: Peace Through Strength: Growing tensions due to political & economic problems led to the formation of two military blocs:
    • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy (Italy later changed sides).
    • Triple Entente: France, Russia, UK.

2. Imperialism (1870 – 1914)

Colonialism: Goal was to dominate the economic resources of the colonies.

Imperialism: Goal included economic control, plus the military & political control of the European minority over the dominated territory.

Causes of Imperialism

  • International Prestige: A way of increasing a country’s power when the European Balance had been broken.
  • Allowed control over trade routes and strategic territories.
  • Reduced problems related to population growth: Excess population emigrated from the metropolis to the colonies to relieve population pressure.
  • Colonies supplied raw materials, markets to sell the metropolis’s industrial products, territories to invest capital, and cheap labor.
  • Spread of the idea of the superiority of the white race and its mission to “civilize” the rest of the world.

Social Darwinism

Ideology created by Herbert Spencer, which considers that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals. It justifies political conservatism, imperialism, and racism.

Forms of Colonial Rule

The UK, France & other imperialist powers (Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia…) established diverse forms of colonial rule:

  • Concessions in China: UK, Germany, Russia, France & Japan distributed areas of influence in China. This was an agreement by which an independent country granted commercial advantages to imperial powers.
  • Protectorate (India / Egypt):
    • Became protectorates of the UK.
    • Two administrations coexisted: Indigenous government (for internal affairs) and the Imperial power (controlled foreign policy, army, and exploitation of certain resources).
  • Colony: Under the direct sovereignty of the metropolis. Many territories in Africa were exploited as colonies:
    • Settler colonies (Canada, Australia, New Zealand…): Population mostly European. Self-governed. Used to relieve population pressure in the metropolis.
    • Exploitation colonies (Belgian Congo): Population mostly indigenous. Governed by the metropolis. Used for the economic benefit of the metropolis (which had exclusive rights to exploit the colony’s resources).

The Scramble for Africa

  • Before 1870: European presence in Africa was limited to the coasts. Some coastal territories were controlled by European powers: France (Algeria, Tunisia, Senegal…), UK (Egypt, South Africa…), Portugal (Angola, Mozambique…).
  • In the 1870’s: European powers began to explore the African continent. Livingstone (UK) explored the Zambezi and Nile rivers, discovering the “Victoria Falls.” Stanley (Belgium) & Brazza (France) explored the Congo basin.
  • 1884: The Berlin Conference: To avoid clashes, European powers met to establish the rules for the occupation of Africa:
    1. Countries with coastal possessions had the right to occupy the interior, provided they demonstrated effective occupation and control of the territory.
    2. Free navigation on the Niger and Congo rivers.
    3. Free trade in Central Africa.
  • From 1885 onwards: Occupation of Africa accelerated: UK tried to form a colonial strip N-S (Egypt – South Africa); France tried to form a colonial strip W-E (starting from its colonies in Senegal, Algeria, and Tunisia); Belgium, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Spain completed the occupation of Africa.

The Conference of Berlin (1884)

  • It regulated European colonization and trade in Africa.
  • It is considered the starting point of the “Scramble for Africa.”
  • Organized by Germany.
  • It eliminated most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance.

Imperialism in Asia and Oceania

  • China: System of concessions (maintained its sovereignty but gave commercial rights to imperial powers).
  • Other powers established control: UK (India, Burma, Malaysia); France (Part of Indochina); Netherlands (Most of Indonesia); US (Philippines); Russia (Siberia, Territories towards China & India).
  • Oceania: UK (Australia, New Zealand); USA (Hawaii); Netherlands, France, Germany (Some islands in the Pacific Ocean).

Consequences of Imperialism

  • For the Colonizers (Metropolis):
    • Mostly positive: Political power and self-esteem; Wealth (raw materials, new markets).
    • However, colonial expansion caused new tensions among the powers, which would be one of the causes of WW1.
  • For the Dominated Territories:
    • Mostly negative: Economic exploitation (imposed export agriculture, prevented industrialization, unequal trade); Political domination; Aggravation of internal conflicts due to arbitrary drawing of borders; Foreigners became the dominant social class; Loss of own culture.
    • To some extent, there were also some positive consequences: Improvement in health conditions; Access to education for the native elite; Construction of infrastructures.

3. WW1: “The Great War” (1914 – 1918)

Contenders

  • Allies (Triple Entente): UK, France, Russia, Others: Serbia, Italy, US, Japan…
  • Central Powers (Triple Alliance): German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Others: Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria…

Causes of WW1

  • The new international expansionist policy undertaken by the German Emperor (William II) in 1890 broke the European balance.
  • Tensions due to the annexation by Germany of the French regions of Alsace & Lorraine (Franco-Prussian War, 1870). France wanted to recover these regions.
  • Economic rivalry due to the increasing economic & industrial power of Germany, which had outpaced the UK in the early 20th Century.
  • Confrontations between imperial powers in the colonies (e.g., Moroccan Crisis & Kruger Telegram):
    • Kruger Telegram: William II sent a telegram to Paul Kruger to congratulate him for defeating the British, causing huge indignation in Great Britain.
    • Moroccan Crisis: 1st in 1905, the German emperor visited Morocco (territory under French influence) and declared support for the Sultan’s sovereignty and Morocco’s independence. 2nd in 1911, during a revolt, Germany sent a battleship to the port of Agadir under the pretext of protecting German trade interests.
  • Confrontations between Austria & Russia for hegemony in the Balkans.
  • Tensions between Austria & Serbia due to Slav nationalism.
  • The creation of a military alliance system & the arms race (“Peace Through Strength”), which could turn any incident into a war of enormous proportions.

The Spark of the War

  • The war finally broke out when Archduke Franz Ferdinand was murdered in Sarajevo on June 28th, 1914, by a Serbian nationalist.
  • Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia to allow Austrian forces to enter Serbia to investigate the murder.
  • Serbia rejected this demand, so Austria declared war on Serbia.
  • The Alliance System created a domino effect pulling everyone into war: Austria-Hungary issues an ultimatum to Serbia → Serbia refuses the ultimatum → Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia (July 28, 1914) → Russia mobilizes its troops to defend Serbia → Germany declares war on Russia → France declares war on Germany → Germany invades Belgium to attack France → Great Britain declares war on Germany.

Characteristics of WW1

  • Vast territorial expansion: it was known as the “Great War.”
  • Society suffered many adversities (malnutrition, bombings, etc.).
  • New defense system: trenches.
  • Women joined the workforce to replace the men fighting at the front.
  • New weapons: Machine guns (Very heavy, needed several people to operate them; fired up to 600 bullets per minute), Flamethrowers, Toxic gases, Mines, Airplanes, Submarines, Tanks, Hand grenades.
  • Psychological warfare as a new form of combat: Propaganda was used to influence people during the war (demoralize the enemy, strengthen the soldiers & their will to resist…).

Main Fronts

  • WW1 was fought mainly in Europe:
    • Western front (frontier France – Germany)
    • Eastern front (frontier Germany – Russia)
  • Other fronts: Balkans, At Sea (next to UK), In the colonies (Middle East, Asia, Africa, Oceania…).

Phases

1914: War of Movements

Germany attempted a plan based on: 1) Rapid victory on France, attacking it through neutral Belgium. 2) After defeating France, turn east to defeat Russia. This plan failed because: The Allies resisted the quick German attack at the Battle of the Marne, and Russia mobilized its troops quicker than expected, advancing rapidly through Prussia. The absence of a decisive victory made the war turn into a long-term conflict. The Western & Eastern fronts stabilized, and lines of trenches were dug along the frontiers with Germany, beginning the “Trench Warfare.”

1915 – 1916: Trench Warfare

The fronts were stabilized along extensive lines of trenches protected by machine guns & barbed wire. During this period, new weapons were used: Machine guns, Grenades, Toxic gases, Flamethrowers… The strategy consisted of wearing out the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous losses in personnel & material.

1917 – 1918: End of the War

  • 1917: Russia withdrew from WW1 (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) due to its internal Communist Revolution, allowing Germany to move more troops to the Western front. The US joined the war on the side of the Allies, marking a major turning point.
  • 1918: The Allies launched a series of offensives on the Western Front, causing the surrender of the Central Powers.

Peace Treaties

1919 – 1920: Paris Peace Conference

  • The League of Nations was created, an international organization for promoting peace.
  • Several treaties were signed: The Central Powers had to reduce their armies, pay war reparations, and make territorial concessions, from which new states emerged (Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Czechoslovakia…).
  • Germany (Treaty of Versailles): Was blamed for the war, gave Alsace & Lorraine back to France, and lost all its colonies. (Felt humiliated, wanted revenge).

Consequences

  • Terrible human losses: 9 million people died; many injured & disabled; many widows & orphans.
  • Huge economic losses (industries, fields, buildings…).
  • Favored the work of women & female suffrage.
  • Increased German nationalism & its desire for revenge, which would lead to fascism & WW2.
  • The US became the leading power in the world; Europe was set aside.

Definitions

  • Imperialism: Goal: besides the economic control, it implied the military & political control of the European minority over the dominated territory.
  • Social Darwinism: Ideology created by Herbert Spencer, which considers that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals. It justifies political conservatism, imperialism, and racism.
  • Psychological Warfare: Use of propaganda to influence people during the war (demoralize the enemy, strengthen the soldiers & their will to resist…).
  • Bismarck’s Alliance Systems: Military alliances between Germany & the main European powers (Russia, Austria, Italy & UK) to isolate France.
  • Colonialism: Goal: dominate the economic resources of the colonies.
  • Machine Guns: Very heavy; needed several people to operate them; fired up to 600 bullets per minute.