European Alliances: Bismarck’s Diplomatic Legacy
Harmony of the Three Emperors
In the late 19th century, European peace was a fragile construct. To maintain it, diplomats resorted to an impressive display of diplomatic maneuvers that resulted in the formation of various alliances, which left the European continent divided into power blocs. The network of covenants was so complex that it baffled even experts. For this reason, this document focuses on the major alliances, avoiding deeper labyrinths.
After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, in which Germany had won a decisive victory, political blocs became more solid and formed a cornerstone of international policy in the region. Otto von Bismarck, the German Chancellor, was the most prominent and influential figure of the period between 1870 and 1890. The successes of recent wars had elevated the German Empire to the status of a top military power in Europe. However, this status brought with it some difficulties.
Defeated, France began to harbor deep resentment and a desire for revenge. But that was not all. To maintain its newly acquired status, Germany needed strong allies. Determined to secure these, Bismarck put his formidable diplomatic genius into action, fostering closer ties with Austria. Years earlier, in 1866, the Prussian army had defeated the Austrians but had the good sense not to impose overly humiliating conditions on the defeated. Thus, unified Germany, with Prussia at its core, had the door open to reach an agreement with its former enemy.
In 1872, a meeting took place in Berlin between Emperors William I of Germany and Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary. The Russian Tsar Alexander II also wished to attend, and thus was born what is known as the “Harmony of the Three Emperors.” In this league, Germany played the dominant role, and Bismarck, very pleased, stated that “Europe recognized the new German Empire as a bulwark of peace.”
The Triple Alliance: Formation and Balkan Conflict
The harmony of the three emperors did not last long. The primary cause of discord was a conflict that erupted in the Balkans. In 1877, Russia went to war with the Ottoman Empire, which dominated the peninsula, achieving victory. After the confrontation, the Treaty of Berlin was signed. In this agreement, although Russia was the victor, it did not receive all the expected benefits.
During the peace conference, Bismarck did nothing to support Russian claims. The Tsar, resentful, accused Bismarck of having “forgotten his commitments.” The harmony of the three emperors had cracked. From that moment, Bismarck realized he was concerned not only about France but also about Russia. The most advisable course of action was to strengthen Germany’s friendship with Austria, with which Germany signed a new secret defensive treaty. Italy was later incorporated into this agreement. Thus, the Triple Alliance was born, signed in Vienna on May 20, 1882.
Bismarck’s Final Diplomacy and Wilhelm II’s Rise
France and Russia found themselves virtually isolated after the establishment of the Triple Alliance. This displeased the Tsar greatly. Despite existing friction, Russia was reluctant to sever ties with a powerful Germany. By that time, Russia had a new ruler, Tsar Alexander III, crowned in 1881.
Bismarck, through his diplomatic efforts, facilitated an agreement with Emperor William I, in which Russia pledged neutrality if a foreign power attacked Germany. This secret deal, known as the Reinsurance Treaty, was Bismarck’s last major diplomatic triumph before his removal from office in 1890. In Germany, a new emperor, Wilhelm II, had also ascended to the throne. He embodied the imperialist ambitions that were then fueling the German people.