European Age of Discovery: Expeditions, Technology, and New States
At the beginning of the 15th century, Europeans knew more about Europe. The existence of India, China, and other Eastern lands was confirmed by Marco Polo’s journeys.
Reasons for the Age of Discovery
European countries needed to find new trade routes. This search was facilitated by a number of technical advances:
Technological Advances in Navigation
- Portulan Charts: Detailed navigational maps were developed.
- Navigational Instruments: Key instruments like the compass, astrolabe, and quadrant were improved and widely used.
- Ships: Vessels were improved, notably the development of the caravel.
Portuguese Maritime Expeditions
Portugal sought a new sea route to India and organized various expeditions.
The Madeira Islands and the Azores were discovered.
Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, opening the sea route to the Indian Ocean, and Vasco da Gama subsequently reached India.
Portugal successfully created a great overseas empire.
The Crown of Castile was Portugal’s biggest rival in the search for new routes to India. The Castilians decided to sail west across the Atlantic Ocean, a journey that was considered terrifying at the time.
The Caravel: Ship of the 15th and 16th Centuries
Although the caravel had existed for hundreds of years, the caravel of the 15th and 16th centuries was faster and more spacious. Caravels typically had a crew of less than 30 men.
The Discovery of America by Columbus
Christopher Columbus was a Genoese sailor. He believed that the Earth was round. He presented his project to the Catholic Monarchs, who decided to finance the expedition, aiming to reach the eastern coast of Asia by crossing the Atlantic Ocean. On 3 August 1492, he left the port of Palos.
Columbus’s calculations were wrong; he thought that the Earth was smaller than it actually is. They sighted land on 12 October 1492, and he believed he had reached Cipango (Japan). This continent was later called America.
Following this initial voyage, he made three more expeditions, during which he explored parts of the coasts of Central and South America. He died firmly believing that he had reached Asia, unaware that these lands constituted a new continent. The continent was named America in honor of Amerigo Vespucci.
Magellan and Elcano: First Circumnavigation
In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano left Seville. Their goal was to find a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to reach the Moluccas (Spice Islands).
In 1520, they found a strait (now the Strait of Magellan) and sailed on to the Philippines. There, Magellan was killed in a fight, and Elcano took command. He returned to Spain after three years, proving that the Earth was round and completing the first circumnavigation of the world.
Consequences of the Great Discoveries
Portugal and Spain created great overseas empires. To prevent conflicts between them, their spheres of influence were divided by the Treaty of Tordesillas, establishing a line of demarcation.
These explorations marked the beginning of European supremacy. European powers sought to benefit from trade, and the discoveries brought significant progress in science. One of the most important consequences of the discoveries was the contact between different peoples and cultures.
European Society and the Rise of New States
The 14th century was marked by crisis, the most terrible event being the Black Death, a devastating plague. However, in the 16th century, the population grew.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the economy expanded significantly, and the banking system improved. During this period, cities held great economic power.
Social Structure in the 15th and 16th Centuries
Society was generally divided into three estates:
- The Nobles and Clergy: They were the most important estates and did not pay taxes.
- The Bourgeoisie: This class became very influential. It was made up of rich and powerful merchants and prominent families.
- The Peasants: They continued to live under harsh conditions and were generally poor.
How Did New Centralized States Emerge?
Monarchs continued to reinforce their power, leading to serious confrontations and some civil wars. The monarchs implemented their decisions and centralized authority in various ways:
- They created a bureaucracy (professional administrators).
- They built up the army.
- They increased taxes.
- They created a diplomatic system.