Ethics, Freedom, and the Human Person
Theme 1: Freedom
Aristotle
Aristotle believed that all human beings desire happiness. The goal of every human being is to be happy, and we seek it in everything we do. We achieve it through virtue. Aristotle says that cultivating virtue is finding the mean between excess and defect. He says that we must pursue happiness for ourselves.
Epicurus
Epicurus says that we must pursue happiness, but it is achieved over time. If we try to get something too quickly, it will cause harm in the long run. He says that we must pursue happiness for ourselves.
Kant
Kant believes that we should not simply pursue happiness; we must do what is right. He says that we must do our duty for duty’s sake, with good intentions and without expecting anything in return. We should not use others to get what we want. We must know what to do before we act.
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas says that we must pursue happiness for all.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism says that we must pursue happiness for almost everyone.
Ethics
Ethics is the inner mode of conduct that arises as a result of reflecting on moral rules. Morals are the rules of behavior. They answer the question “what should I do?”.
The Human Being as a Moral Guide
The human being, possessing a sense of duty, is a moral being.
Other Features of the Human Being are:
Freedom
Human beings can choose between two options: to do something or not to do it. In contrast, animals are not free; they cannot say no to what they desire because their instincts dictate their actions. Human behavior varies with the change of time; humans have created computers, railways, etc. But animal behavior stays the same. Humans adapt the environment to their will, but animals adapt to the environment.
Humans, as moral beings, aspire to honesty.
The Characteristics of the Honest Person are:
- Helping others selflessly
- Being a model and example for others
Human Freedom: Significance of Ethics
We are not free to choose where we are born or who our parents are; Ortega calls this “circumstance”, i.e., what surrounds us. However, we are free to respond to that circumstance in a particular way.
External freedom implies the absence of coercion or external impediment (e.g., not being tied to a chair). But inner freedom is a choice between two options and assumes responsibility, meaning taking responsibility for the consequences of our actions.
Ortega y Gasset
Life is a project that you draw on your own, and therefore, it is freedom. Humans are future-oriented.
Arguments Against Freedom:
Determinism of Destiny
This is an impersonal force that traces life, and we cannot fight it.
Social Determinism (Durkheim)
Determinism of Education (Skinner)
Physiological Determinism
Theme 2: Personal Identity
Affective-Emotional Education
Personality
In the 6th century, Boethius defined the person as an individual substance of a rational nature, meaning that the individual is autonomous, exists by itself and not by another, and is endowed with rational self-consciousness. This characteristic of the person, endowed with reason and will, repeats throughout history as the main feature: Aristotle, Descartes, and Kant.
Aristotle emphasizes that humans are rational beings endowed with intelligence and choice, unlike animals, which are neither rational nor self-aware, and their performance is determined by instinct.
Other Features of the Person are:
Freedom
Humans are a project (Sartre, Ortega, and Kant).
Morality
Humans are directed by principle and duty (Kant).
Dignity
Things can be considered as means that are in the service of humans. Instead, people have dignity; they are, as Kant said, an end in themselves, not a means or instrument for achieving simple interests. A person is not money; you cannot buy or sell them; they have inherent value.
Friendship
To love someone is to desire their good, speak well of them, and do good to them.
Ability to Criticize
Being a person is being able to say no, not just protesting but trying to transform the world.
Intimacy
The greatest wealth of humans lies in their inner life, which is inviolable.
Communication and Sociability
Humans are not meant to be isolated; they are open to others and the world. In fact, humans are social beings who need to communicate and associate with others to enrich their own person and achieve self-realization.
Equality
We must respect every human being irrespective of any personal or social condition or circumstance. We are all equal.
Self-determination
That is, people must follow their own decisions in relation to their freedom.
Fulfillment (Maslow)
This is the highest aspiration of every human being. Below are the physiological needs (eating, sleeping), security, belonging (feeling loved, belonging to a group of friends), and esteem.
The Person as a Social Being
“Is man social?” For Plato and Aristotle, yes, because humans are not happy living alone. In fact, Aristotle says that language justifies the social nature of humans. Human language is called “word” because with it, humans express moral sentiments, what is right or wrong, fair or unfair. Animals have a voice with which they express pain or pleasure.
However, Rousseau, in the 18th century, said that humans are not social by nature. At first, they lived alone, free, and independent, but society was to blame for all ills. Thus, he tells us that humans are good by nature, and society corrupts them.