Ethical Theories, Social Norms, and the Dynamics of Power
Ethical Theories
Ethical theories are doctrines that philosophers have developed throughout history. Each doctrine must present its view on moral behavior in humans, its justification, its ultimate causes, and the practical consequences that can be applied to specific cases in our lives. The main theories in our history are:
- Ancient Greek Philosophers: Doctrines from philosophers like Aristotle and Epicurus (4th century BC).
- Judeo-Christian Tradition: This tradition forms the basis of Western civilization, mainly through Christianity, covering the ancient and medieval periods.
- The Enlightenment: During this period, the foundation of ethics was placed in reason. This era includes the doctrines of Kant and the utilitarians. Its influence extends throughout the 19th century, along with doctrines that seek societal change, such as communism (Marx), anarchism, and liberalism.
- 20th Century: This century revolves around the ethics of democratic societies, which various positions attempt to correct. However, its basis is the respect for human rights. The philosophy of dialogue is particularly noteworthy.
Standards of Living Together
In a society, there are different kinds of rules governing the relationships among citizens:
- Social Norms: These are rules established by the usages, customs, and traditions that operate in a society, e.g., how to dress, etiquette, etc.
- Rules of Law: These are laws dictated by political authority, which have the force of obligation. If they are broken, they usually carry a penalty based on the harm done (fine, jail, etc.).
These two standards differ from moral standards, as the obligation comes from individuals. Also, the sanction is of an external nature (from society or the laws) and entails punishment only when it involves a legal violation.
The Legal-Political System
Being political means that man is part of a community and has the responsibility to participate as a citizen.
- Law or Legal System: The set of rules promulgated by the state publicly. Laws are general rules laid down by the authorities and are written in constitutions, codes, and regulations.
- Authority: Refers to the power that accompanies the law, its capacity to direct behavior effectively. There are several types, but political authority is exercised by the state and the law.
The legal and political system establishes the rights and freedoms of society and should facilitate the renewal of positions and access to them by citizens.
Legality, Legitimacy, and Effectiveness of Laws
The classic reflection on political power is that of Max Weber, according to whom it is the state that has the legitimate use of violence. Coercion, threat, or punishment by law or legal norms must be accompanied by legitimacy, i.e., it must have a rational justification. The relationship between the legality and legitimacy of the rules can yield the following three situations:
1st Situation: Legal norms exist in a state that is not legitimate. The laws of a dictatorship are a body or code that may not respect human rights. For example, the Nazis and their anti-Jewish laws.
2nd Situation: In a society, laws reflect the legitimacy of the rules of coexistence, or, put another way, rules are used for social harmony and order, like customs. These are customs and traditions that do not need to be written but are respected.
3rd Situation: This is the desirable situation for any society represented by a democratic state and law, where laws are legitimate because they fully respect and guarantee the human rights and freedoms of citizens.
Conditions of the Legality of the Law
For a law to have legal status, it requires two things: that it meets certain formal requirements and that it follows certain procedures to establish them. Legitimacy has to do with the justice or injustice of the law. Therefore, there is a rule of law that states that all law, state activity, and its functions should be subject to the provisions of earlier laws. In addition, each law has a higher or lower rank within the legal system. The constitution is the law of the highest rank; all others must respect the principles and rules laid down in it.
Authority and Power
There are four ways of linking power and authority:
A) When there are people who have obtained authority in their own right, they know what is necessary for the job and do so with limited and correct power, we have a legitimate authority exercising its power with restraint.
B) If the person who has obtained full authority is qualified for the position they occupy but wields power in an unfair and wrong way (corrupt politician), there is a legitimate authority exercising power without restraint.
C) Illegitimate authority is exercised for a time with or without restraint, i.e., the person does not have full authority, knows what it takes to fill the position, and does everything necessary to keep the powerful army, with or without abuse.
D) Finally, there is the illegitimate authority that exercises inordinate, arbitrary, oppressive, or tyrannical power. The individual does not acquire legitimate authority, has no knowledge adapting to the post, but has the resources needed to exercise absolute power and impose their will (dictators, terrorists).
Legitimate Authority
Legitimate authority meets the following two conditions: it is public knowledge, and its recognition is based on certain laws that involve the obedience of the people, respecting justice and the law.
Authority and Authoritarianism
When the authority, which has the right and power to command and be obeyed, exceeds in the use of its power, we have authoritarianism, whether it is lawful authority or not. Generally, authoritarianism is associated with the practice of power without control or the ability to make claims by those subject to it, that is, absolutely. This would be the case with the monarchs of the old regime or dictators. Ultimately, the power that accompanies authority should remain free to those who obey it and, at the same time, allow citizens to monitor its use and avoid manipulation.
Authority
Authority can mean two things: the power of one person over another who is subordinate, and the credit given to a person for merit or reputation in a particular field. The first is power or leadership; the second is winning recognition from others. Authority is something that can be held, but to get it, it must be earned; it must be granted by other people. This is the case with politicians, police, etc. According to someone, authority means having the right to exercise it, and this is granted by another person or a prior law. To exercise full authority is called flaunting it. Exercising a position of authority without being entitled to it is usurping power.
Power
Power means having the ability to influence people or things; it is being able to say something or be able to do something. For example, to solve a math problem, we have the ability or power to do this; here, it is knowledge. The term also refers to the dominance of humans over others, so that it is sometimes necessary and positive (when it adheres to certain rules and within limits), such as the dependence of children on their parents. However, it can also be converted into slavery, labor exploitation, or abuse of power by leaders over subordinates, for example.