Ethical Theories: Aristotle, Mill, Kant, and Religious Views
Understanding Ethics: Good vs. Bad
What is Good? Ethics is the reflection on morality, specifically, what we consider good and bad. We all recognize moral standards, even if they are not written down. We assign moral value to actions, both our own and others’. We all have an ethical framework, even if we are not fully aware of it. Our decisions reveal our particular ethical positions.
Aristotle: Happiness as the Ultimate Good
Aristotle, the good thing is happiness: For Aristotle, all human actions have a purpose. We do things to reach a goal, and that goal gives meaning to our actions. Our life is a series of actions leading to ends, but these ends are also means to other ends. There must be an ultimate goal, a purpose that is not a means to another end. This ultimate goal, desired for its own sake, is happiness.
Happiness is only possible for those who live by reason, who are not swayed by passion, and who control their desires and fears. A good person is wise, seeking the middle ground between extremes. This middle ground varies depending on circumstances and the individual. However, happiness requires certain prerequisites: physical, emotional, and material well-being.
Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism and the Pursuit of Pleasure
Stuart Mill, what good is it useful: This philosopher developed the ethical theory known as utilitarianism. For utilitarians, good is what is useful and pleasant. They believe that all people seek happiness and equate happiness with pleasure. We desire what is pleasurable, but not all pleasures are desirable, as some fleeting pleasures cause pain.
Mill distinguishes between lower and higher pleasures. Lower pleasures are bodily, while higher pleasures relate to our creative and intellectual abilities. Mill argues that happiness is attainable if it is not seen as constant ecstasy, but as a life with moments of excitement, few and transient pains, and many varied pleasures. According to utilitarian theory, we should act to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Kant: Duty as the Foundation of Morality
Kant, the good is what is done out of duty: For Kant, humans are both natural and rational beings. We are governed by natural laws, such as eating and sleeping, but also by moral law. This moral law is inherent in our reason and is the same for all humans. It dictates that what we consider good for ourselves must also be good for everyone else.
When we act well, we can easily conceive of our actions as universal laws. However, when we act badly, we do not want our actions to become universal laws; we want to be the exception. A liar wants to lie but does not want to be lied to. For Kant, the intention of the act is more important than the results. Good deeds are done out of a sense of duty. Kant distinguishes between legality and morality: an act is legal when it aligns with duty, but it is only moral if it is not done out of self-interest, convenience, or fear. The human being has intrinsic value and cannot be replaced.
Religious Perspectives on Happiness and Suffering
Humans are aware of life and the inevitability of death. We celebrate births and mourn deaths.
Sergio Bergman: Acceptance and Faith
Sergio Bergman: “The Lord gave us, the Lord will take off. Yet, blessed be your holy name.” We question God’s view when actions cause pain and suffering. We wonder where God is in these moments. We are constantly tested, and it is important to see how we react to these trials, which are not always painful. Part of life is accepting that some things are lost and will not return, such as the death of a loved one.
Primo Corbelli: Suffering and the Search for Meaning
Primo Corbelli, states that the current situation makes people suffer even more religiously. People feel as if they are part of God’s silence. Because there is impunity, it seems that the wicked are the ones who succeed. For us, suffering is not a value; it is something that must be fought. True happiness is feeling useful to others.