Ethical Theories: A Deep Dive into Moral Philosophy
What is an Ethical Theory?
Ethics is the philosophical reflection on morality.
- Study the origin and coexistence of different moral codes.
- Suggests where should guide our conduct.
- Analyze the consequences of our moral actions.
- It helps us to develop a moral dilemma if
- Fundamental moral action although this does not cause problems.
The ethical theories are the rationale that explains the moral behavior of individuals. These represent an effort of thought to understand the human condition and offer a consistent and thorough explanation of our actions.
The Theory of Ends
The various ethical theories start with a question: what is the end towards which we direct our actions? They are interested in the purpose or the consequences of which we enjoy if we follow a set of rules. Some theories, such as those of Aristotle and Epicurus, argue that human behavior is oriented toward the pursuit of individual happiness, while other thinkers, like Hume, Bentham, and Stuart Mill, argue that it moves towards the pursuit of happiness or utility for as many people as possible.
The Ethics of Duty
These ethical theories do not ask what will make us happy, but what duties we have as human beings endowed with reason. These theories are based on the question: what is our duty? They are not interested in the consequences, but in what reason dictates is the most fair. The ethics of duty arose around the figure of Immanuel Kant, and among its proponents are existentialist philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, and subsequent theories based on dialogue and communication.
Aristotle’s View on Happiness
Aristotle (384-322 BC) wrote the first systematic treatises on ethics, which state that the ultimate end of man, which explains his moral behavior, is to achieve happiness. Happiness is eudaimonia in Greek, hence the term to refer to eudaimonistic ethics. Aristotle argues that all human beings want, by nature, to be happy, but it is clear that few of them succeed. The main reason is that wrong decisions are made and happiness is confused with personal ambition, wealth, or prestige. To avoid mistakes, Aristotle believes it is necessary to make use of reason and not choose the most beneficial option at first, but the more prudent, which is situated in the middle ground between excess and defect. Thus, a prudent person decides, without cowardice or recklessness, what is best for their entire life and not what suits them at the moment.
Epicurus and Hedonism
Another Greek study of ethics is hedonism (341-270 BC). This theory argues that the ultimate end of man is to achieve happiness understood as pleasure. For Epicurus, human behavior is explained by the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain. However, Epicurus does not refer only to bodily pleasures and pains, but also spiritual ones. The maximum pleasure for Epicurus is found in:
- The peace of mind, once all requirements are satisfied.
- The absence of concerns and trying to avoid suffering. We no longer worry about disease, or death.
Utilitarianism: Bentham, Mill, and Hume
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) states that human beings always act moved by the pursuit of happiness for as many people as possible. He adds a new concept: that which gives us pleasure and happiness is good and, therefore, useful. Bentham also introduces the possibility of measuring pleasures, which differ in quantity and can be ordered hierarchically from this point of view. For his part, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) added to Bentham’s utilitarian theory that pleasures differ not only in terms of quantity, but also in quality. Thus, there are higher pleasures (moral and intellectual) and lower (physical) ones.
Rules of Dialogue (Habermas)
Habermas raises some rules that ethical dialogue should meet:
- Anyone capable of speech and action can participate.
- Anyone can question any assertion that seems problematic.
- Anyone can make any assertion they deem appropriate.
- Anyone can voice their positions, desires, and needs.
- No speaker can be prevented from asserting their rights, established in the above rules, by internal or external coercion.
Kant’s Ethical Theory
The philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) proposed a radically different ethics from all previous ones. He explains that our behavior should not be based on finding a reward or avoiding punishment, but on what reason dictates that we must do. The duty is to act with good will. This means doing what needs to be done, even if we obtain nothing in return. Kant defends that we must continue to behave according to what our reason tells us are moral laws. So, moral laws can be understood as universal, i.e., they can serve for all human beings in all circumstances. To these moral laws, understood as obligations or mandates for all without distinction, he called categorical imperatives.