Ethical Principles in Professions

1. Extensive training (knowledge)

2. Intellectual training (guidance on how to use knowledge)

3. Provides important services to society

Barber–
Account of professional behavior

1. Generalized and systematic knowledge

2. Works b/c community devotion, not self-interest

3. Discipline/field self-polices using codes of ethics

4. Rewards system (monetary and honorary)

Utilitarianism –
ULTIMATE VALUE = happiness

Bentham says happiness is more pleasure, less pain; Mill says it’s the maximized satisfaction of preferences

Nozick’s experiment – machine that perfectly simulates life without pain/sadness; Bentham’s conception of happiness is an issue here, Mill’s is not

Morally relevant property is sentience – anything that can feel pleasure/pain has moral standing

OBJECTIONS: 1. Difficult to calculate what your choices will accomplish; 2. Violates justice (might prevent punishment); 3. Violates rights (unknowing victims will be none the wiser)

Potential responses – reject the way the consequences of an action are described (not really a problem); accept those consequences so the action can be considered morally right; develop theoretical distinctions

ACT utilitarianism–
Apply Greatest Happiness Principle to specific acts

RULE utilitarianism – apply GHP to general rules, which govern specific acts

Kantianism–
ULTIMATE VALUE = a good will

oes not value hypothetical imperatives (“if you want x, do y”) because they’re too variable categorical imperatives instead (conditionless, timeless, universal)

CI 1: UNIVERSALIZABILITY FORMULATION: “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law”

Potential failure 1: following through is logically/conceptually impossible

Potential failure 2: “impossibility of the world” – makes the current world impossible

CI 2: END IN ITSELF FORMULATION: “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end but always at the same time as an end.”

2-step method – have proper intentions and a plan of appropriate actions

The actions are right if they pass the first or second CIs

The intention needs to be from duty or in accordance with duty

Morally relevant properties are autonomy and rationality – adult humans have moral standing

OBJECTIONS: 1. Conception of moral standing is too limited; 2. Rules are impractical because they’re inviolable; 3. Wording quickly becomes a problem – we can’t have followable rules unless we turn CIs into hypothetical imperatives (adding conditions)

OCC morality–
General questions

Source – origin, authority, justification

Scope – justification, strength, precedence

Carr–
Poker analogy – business and poker both involve chance, skill, rules, insight into others’ psychology, bold fronts, and quick responses to contingencies; therefore, it’s acceptable to have different rules for business and normal life

Source – origin (gov’t); authority (the law); justification (anything not legislated)

Scope – jurisdiction (business only); strength (obligation – high strength); precedence (always overrides ORD)

Freedman–
Zealous legal defense

Deception is not only permissible but required in some cases – confidentiality must remain absolute if the attorney is to carry out their mission of defending the client

Source – origin (adversary system); authority (legal system); justification (special treatment for clients only)

Scope – jurisdiction (law); strength (100%); precedence (always beats ORD)

Collins–
Should doctors tell the truth?

Goal: a mission of mercy – reduce anxiety, angst, suffering, pain

Unacceptable deceptions:

 – pretending to have knowledge you don’t

 – claiming responsibility for things that resolve naturally

 – claiming ability to treat/cure/heal when you can’t

 – declaring something incurable w/o sufficient knowledge

Acceptable deceptions:

 – when the truth may be psychologically harmful

 – when one can help clients achieve their goals

 – possibility of reprieve

Source – origin (physician’s job); authority (mission of mercy); justification (doctor knows best)

Scope – jurisdiction (health care); strength (100%); precedence (always over ORD)

ORD morality–
The same rules apply in all fields

Gillespie–
Prescriptions for ethical behavior in business

1. No individual has a responsibility to buck the tide if it could get them hurt

2. Everyone should pursue changes in business practice

3. No one should thwart changes in business practice

4. Everyone should pursue changes that impose little cost (large changes come from collective action)

Pinkard–
Deception in social research

Autonomy = control of your person, which extends to control of your information

Breaches of privacy constitute breaches of personal autonomy

If there aren’t safe areas where privacy is guaranteed, then personal autonomy is nonexistent everywhere

Rights are more important that utility

Veatch–
Models of professional relations – engineering, priestly, collegial, contractual

Differ in degree of client autonomy and transparency

Winslow–
Models of professional relations – group loyalty/military, legal/advocacy

Differ in where loyalty lies – defend either hierarchy or client

Bok–
Confidentiality

Justifications – autonomy over info, relationships, pledges of silence, social utility

Limitations to think about – limited capacity of autonomy, danger to self or others, conflict with other values

Professionals have used confidentiality to hide bad behavior, so it’s important to consider why confidentiality is being used in a given situation