Ethical Philosophies: From Ancient Greece to Modernity

Aristotle’s Ethics: Virtue and the Citizen

Aristotle, born in ancient Greece in 384 BC, reflected on the role of citizens in society, emphasizing the fundamental importance of education. He believed that individuals should strive for self-improvement, developing their best qualities and exercising caution in all situations. Educated individuals, in this view, are a benefit to the city. To flourish and achieve happiness, a person should cultivate virtue, not just through thought, but through practice, aiming for a balanced approach. Acting well involves avoiding both excess and deficiency, finding the virtuous midpoint.

Augustine’s Theology: Faith and Happiness

Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in the late Roman Empire, focused on faith. He considered the highest aspiration of humanity to be closeness to God. God, in Augustine’s view, created and sustains the universe and resides within us. Everyone has the freedom to choose whether or not to turn towards God. Finding happiness is synonymous with finding God, as God is essentially love. Discovering God also provides the strength to love and share happiness with others. Augustine recognized humanity’s tendency towards wrongdoing and believed that only through God’s grace can we truly do good.

Kant’s Enlightenment: Reason and Universal Principles

Kant, a German philosopher of the eighteenth century, was deeply concerned with the human capacity for reason and learning. He believed that people are capable of reaching agreement and determining the correct use of reason through the free exercise of their ideas. Kant emphasized the importance of ensuring that our principles of action could be universally valid.

Sartre’s Existentialism: Freedom and Responsibility

Sartre, born in Paris in 1905, was a prominent philosopher of existentialism. He emphasized the primacy of existence over essence: what matters is not any pre-defined notion of what a human being should be, but the specific choices and actions of each individual. Individuals possess total freedom, and it is imperative that we use this freedom responsibly. Nobody can act in our place; we are solely responsible for our actions and inactions.

Ethical Attitudes: Modernity and Postmodernity

Modernity, beginning with the Renaissance, saw the rise of science as we know it. The modern attitude is characterized by optimism, trusting in human reason and experience to solve all problems. This era also gave birth to the idea of progress. Postmodernism is known for its critical stance, viewing ideas as scattered fragments with relative value, but lacking a unified meaning. This is sometimes referred to as “weak thought.”

Altermundism: This term refers to the situation following the demise of the Soviet Union and the communist bloc. The world became dominated by Western thought, emphasizing ideas of freedom, democracy, and capitalist economics. This means that economic power often has the final say, with the market determining the success or failure of ideas and products. However, various groups and non-governmental organizations advocate for an alternative world, promoting the fight against inequality.

Gandhi: Nonviolent Resistance and Leadership

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, India. He became one of the most respected spiritual and political leaders of the twentieth century. Gandhi led the Indian people’s liberation from English colonial rule through nonviolent resistance. He is honored by his people as the Father of the Indian Nation. Indians called Gandhi “Mahatma,” meaning “Great Soul.”