Essential Sociological Theories and Concepts
Sex vs Gender
Sex refers to the biological and physiological differences we are born with. Gender refers to the social and cultural expectations of behavior that we learn and perform in society.
Functionalist Theory of Gender (Talcott Parsons)
The Functionalist Theory of Gender (Talcott Parsons) argues that gender differences exist to keep society stable. Women take on expressive roles (care and emotional support), while men take on instrumental roles.
Glass Ceiling vs Glass Escalator
The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that stops women from reaching top leadership positions. The glass escalator refers to the hidden advantage men receive in female-dominated professions (such as nursing), pushing them quickly into management.
Liberal vs Radical Feminism
Liberal feminists fight for equality through laws and policy reform within the current system. Radical feminists believe the root cause of inequality is patriarchy and argue that the entire social system must be overthrown, not just reformed.
Human Capital Theory
This economic theory claims the gender pay gap happens because women choose to invest less in their skills due to family priorities.
Race vs Ethnicity
Race is a socially constructed category based on physical traits that society deems important. Ethnicity refers to shared cultural values, such as language, ancestry, history, and religion, that distinguish a group.
Institutional Racism
This is not about individual acts of hate, but about racism built into the operations of social institutions (like police, healthcare, and schools). These systems consistently favor the dominant group and disadvantage minorities, even without obvious individual prejudice.
Color-Blind Racism
This is a subtle form of racism where people act as if race does not exist and claim everyone has equal opportunities. By ignoring racial history and structure, it maintains inequality and blames minorities for their own struggles.
Models of Ethnic Integration
- Assimilation: Expects immigrants to adopt the dominant culture.
- Melting Pot: Suggests cultures mix to form something new.
- Pluralism/Multiculturalism: Means ethnic groups exist separately but share equal political and economic rights.
Relational Class Concept
Class is not just defined by income, but by employment relations.
Labour Contract vs Service Relationship
A labour contract is a short-term exchange of money for effort, used for easily supervised jobs. A service relationship is long-term, offering trust, salary increases, and career growth, used for professionals who are harder to supervise.
Bourdieu’s Capital
Class is determined by three types of capital: economic, cultural, and social. Habitus refers to the internalized habits and dispositions that help reproduce these class advantages.
Meritocracy vs Social Mobility
Meritocracy is the ideal that success comes only from talent and effort. Social mobility measures if people actually change class; low mobility suggests family background matters more than merit, proving true meritocracy does not exist.
The Malthusian Trap
The Malthusian trap predicted population grows geometrically while food grows arithmetically, leading to disaster. Malthus believed only positive checks (war, famine) or preventive checks (abstinence) could control population.
Demographic Transition Theory
This theory links population growth to industrialization in four stages:
- Pre-industrial: High birth and death rates.
- Early industrial: Death rates fall, population explodes.
- Mature industrial: Birth rates fall.
- Post-industrial: Low birth and death rates, stable population.
Human Ecology (Chicago School)
The Human Ecology theory views the city as a living organism or ecosystem. It suggests cities grow in concentric circles through biological-like processes: competition for space, differentiation of areas, and ecological succession.
Urbanism as a Way of Life (Louis Wirth)
Louis Wirth defined city life not just by density, but by its psychological effects. Urbanism leads to superficial, impersonal social contacts and emotional withdrawal, but also greater tolerance for difference compared to rural life.
The Postmodern City
The postmodern city is characterized by being privatized, fragmented, and focused on globalized consumption or entertainment.
Gentrification
This is the process where middle- and upper-class people move into deteriorated urban neighborhoods and renovate them. While it improves buildings, it often drives up costs and displaces the original low-income residents.
Achievement vs Attainment
Achievement refers to the actual skills and competencies learned. Attainment refers to the official degrees and years of schooling completed. Sociology studies how social class affects both of these unequally.
Signalling Theory
This theory suggests education doesn’t necessarily increase productivity. Instead, a degree is a “signal” to employers that a candidate possesses desirable traits like discipline and perseverance.
The Hidden Curriculum
The hidden curriculum consists of the unwritten lessons taught in schools, such as obedience, punctuality, and respect for authority. Marxists argue this prepares working-class students to accept their subordinate position in the capitalist labor market.
Stereotype Threat
This is the anxiety felt by members of a group (like minorities or women in math) when they fear confirming a negative stereotype. This anxiety uses up mental energy and lowers test performance, worsening the achievement gap.
Credentialism
Credentialism is the inflation of degree requirements for jobs that didn’t previously need them.