Essential Rules for Reported Speech, Conditionals, and Verbals
Reported Speech: Commands, Requests, and Suggestions
1. Reported Commands
When reporting a command, we typically use the verbs “tell” or “order,” followed by the infinitive form of the verb.
Structure for Commands
- Direct Speech: Imperative + Object
- Reported Speech: Subject + told / ordered + Object + to + Verb
Examples
- Direct Speech: “Close the door!”
- Reported Speech: He told me to close the door.
2. Reported Requests
For requests, we often use “ask” or “request,” and the structure remains similar to that of commands.
Structure for Requests
- Direct Speech: Request
- Reported Speech: Subject + asked / requested + Object + to + Verb
Examples
- Direct Speech: “Can you help me?”
- Reported Speech: He asked me to help him.
Pronouns should be adjusted according to the context of the reported speech.
3. Reported Suggestions
When reporting a suggestion, we can use “suggest” or “recommend.” The structure may differ slightly.
Structure for Suggestions
- Direct Speech: Suggestion
- Reported Speech: Subject + suggested / recommended + (that) + Subject + should + Verb
Examples
- Direct Speech: “Let’s go for a walk.”
- Reported Speech: He suggested that we should go for a walk.
4. General Notes on Reported Speech
- Tense Changes: When converting direct speech to reported speech, verb tenses often change. For example, Present Simple may change to Past Simple.
- Pronoun Changes: Pronouns should be adjusted according to the context of the reported speech.
Additional Examples
- Commands:
- Direct Speech: “Turn off the lights!”
- Reported Speech: He told us to turn off the lights.
- Requests:
- Direct Speech: “Could you please pass the salt?”
- Reported Speech: She asked me to pass the salt.
- Suggestions:
- Direct Speech: “Why don’t we watch a movie?”
- Reported Speech: He suggested that we should watch a movie.
Countable and Uncountable Nouns in English
1. Definition and Key Differences
Countable nouns name things that can be counted as separate items. They have both singular and plural forms:
- Singular: a book, an apple, one idea
- Plural: two books, three apples, several ideas
Uncountable nouns name things we consider as whole concepts or masses. They:
- Do not have plural forms.
- Cannot be used with numbers directly.
- Always take singular verbs.
Examples: water, information, rice, happiness.
2. Categories of Uncountable Nouns
2.1. Substances and Materials
- Liquids: water, coffee, milk
- Solids: wood, metal, plastic
- Granular substances: rice, sugar, sand
2.2. Abstract Concepts
- Feelings: happiness, anger, courage
- Subjects: physics, economics, history
- General ideas: information, advice, knowledge
3. Grammar Rules for Nouns
3.1. Articles
- Countable: “a book” (singular), “books” (plural)
- Uncountable: No “a/an” (❌ “a water”). Can use “the” when specific (“the water in this glass”).
3.2. Quantifiers
- Countable: many books, few apples, several ideas
- Uncountable: much water, little information, a bit of advice
- Both: some (some books/some water), any (any questions/any milk)
3.3. Measurement Expressions
For uncountable nouns, we use measurement words:
- A cup of coffee
- Two slices of bread
- Three pieces of furniture
4. Special Cases
4.1. Nouns That Can Be Both
Some nouns change meaning depending on whether they are countable or uncountable:
- “I like chicken” (meat, uncountable)
- “We have five chickens” (animals, countable)
- “She has brown hair” (all hair, uncountable)
- “There’s a hair in my soup” (single strand, countable)
4.2. Always Plural Nouns
Some objects have two parts and are always plural:
- Scissors, pants, glasses
These take plural verbs: “My glasses are broken.”
4.3. Collective Nouns
Groups that can be singular or plural:
- “The team is winning” (as one unit)
- “The team are arguing” (individual members)
Quantifiers: Usage and Rules
Quantifiers are words that express quantity. They tell us “how much” or “how many” of something exists.
1. Quantifiers for Countable Nouns
(Used with things you can count: books, apples, people)
- Many: Formal way to say “a large number.” Used mainly in questions and negative statements.
- Example: “There aren’t many tickets left.”
- A few: Means “some but not many” (positive meaning).
- Example: “I have a few friends coming over.”
- Few: Means “almost none” (negative meaning).
- Example: “Few students passed the difficult test.”
- Several: More than “a few” but less than “many.”
- Example: “She owns several valuable paintings.”
2. Quantifiers for Uncountable Nouns
(Used with things you cannot count: water, time, information)
- Much: Formal way to say “a large amount.” Used mainly in questions and negatives.
- Example: “We do not have much time left.”
- A little: Means “some but not much” (positive).
- Example: “Add a little salt to the soup.”
- Little: Means “almost none” (negative).
- Example: “There is little hope of finding it now.”
3. Quantifiers for Both Types
- Some: Used in positive statements and polite offers/requests.
- Example: “I have some books / some coffee.”
- Any: Used in questions and negative statements.
- Example: “Do you have any questions?”
- No: Indicates complete absence (stronger than “not any”).
- Example: “There are no messages for you.”
- A lot of / Lots of: Informal ways to say “many/much.”
- Example: “She has a lot of friends / lots of energy.”
4. Distinctions and Special Cases
4.1. Few vs. A Few / Little vs. A Little
- Few / Little: Implies insufficiency (negative tone).
- Example: “Few people came to the meeting.” (Disappointing)
- A few / A little: Implies sufficiency (positive tone).
- Example: “A few people came to the meeting.” (Better than none)
4.2. Using “Some” and “Any”
- “Some” in Questions: Used when making offers or requests, or when the speaker expects a positive answer.
- Example: “Would you like some coffee?” (Offering)
- “Any” in Positive Statements: Used to mean “it does not matter which.”
- Example: “You can choose any color you like.”
- Double Negatives: Avoid using “not” and “no” together.
- Correct: “I do not have any money.” or “I have no money.”
5. Every vs. Each
These determiners refer to members of a group, but emphasize different aspects.
- Every: Refers to all members of a group collectively (typically 3+ items). Emphasizes the group as a whole.
- Example: “Every student received a certificate.” (All students together)
- Grammar: Can combine with numbers to show frequency (“every three hours”).
- Each: Refers to individual members of a group (2+ items). Emphasizes items one by one.
- Example: “Each student presented their project.” (Individual presentations)
- Grammar: Can stand alone as a pronoun (“The books cost $10 each.”). Works directly with “of” (“Each of the students passed.”).
Conditionals in English: Structures and Uses
Conditionals describe hypothetical situations and their possible consequences. There are five main types, each with specific structures and uses:
1. Zero Conditional (General Truths)
- Structure: If + Present Simple, Present Simple
- Use: For facts and scientific truths.
- Example: “If you heat ice, it melts.”
2. First Conditional (Real Possibilities)
- Structure: If + Present Simple, will + base verb
- Use: For likely future situations.
- Example: “If it rains, we will cancel the picnic.”
3. Second Conditional (Unreal Present/Future)
- Structure: If + Past Simple, would + base verb
- Use: For imaginary or unlikely present or future situations.
- Example: “If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.”
4. Third Conditional (Unreal Past)
- Structure: If + Past Perfect, would have + past participle
- Use: For hypothetical past situations (regrets or criticism).
- Example: “If you had studied, you would have passed.”
5. Mixed Conditional (Combined Time Frames)
- Structure: If + Past Perfect, would + base verb
- Use: When a past action affects the present.
- Example: “If you had saved money, you would not be broke now.”
Special Notes on Conditionals
- “Unless”: Equivalent to “If not.”
- Example: “Unless you hurry” = “If you do not hurry.”
- Inversion: A formal alternative without “if.”
- Example: “Were I you” = “If I were you.”
- Modal Variations: Modals like could, might, or may can replace will or would.
- Example: “If you see him, could you tell him?”
Determiners: Clarifying Nouns
Determiners are words placed before nouns to clarify what the noun refers to. They provide context about quantity, possession, and specificity.
1. Types of Determiners
1.1. Articles
- Definite (the): Refers to specific nouns.
- Example: “Pass me the blue book.”
- Indefinite (a/an): Refers to non-specific nouns.
- Example: “I need a new laptop.”
1.2. Demonstratives
- This/That (singular):
- Example: “This restaurant is great.”
- These/Those (plural):
- Example: “Those shoes are expensive.”
1.3. Possessives
- Show ownership.
- Example: “My car is parked outside.”
1.4. Quantifiers
- Indicate amount or number.
- Example: “Some people arrived early.”
1.5. Numbers
- Cardinal (one, two):
- Example: “She has three cats.”
- Ordinal (first, second):
- Example: “This is my second warning.”
1.6. Distributives
- Refer to group members individually.
- Example: “Each student received a certificate.”
2. Rules for Using Determiners
2.1. Singular Countable Nouns
Must have a determiner:
- Correct: “I want a banana.”
- Incorrect: “I want banana.”
2.2. Plural or Uncountable Nouns
Can stand alone for general meaning:
- Example: “Water is essential for life.”
2.3. Order of Determiners
When multiple determiners appear together, the typical order is:
- Predeterminers (all, both, half)
- Articles/Demonstratives
- Possessives/Quantifiers
- Example: “All these new rules are confusing.”
3. Special Cases
3.1. No Determiner Needed With:
- Proper nouns (Paris, Mary)
- Abstract nouns in a general sense (love, happiness)
- Meals (breakfast, lunch)
- Example: “We had dinner at eight.”
3.2. Geographical Exceptions
Some place names require “the”:
- Example: “the United States, the Alps”
The Infinitive in English
The infinitive is the base form of a verb, typically preceded by “to” (e.g., to go, to eat, to study). It serves multiple grammatical functions in sentences.
1. Forms of the Infinitive
- Full Infinitive (to-infinitive): to + base verb
- Example: I want to leave early.
- Bare Infinitive: base verb without “to”
- Example: She can swim very well.
- Continuous Infinitive: to be + -ing form (Shows ongoing action)
- Example: He pretended to be sleeping.
- Perfect Infinitive: to have + past participle (Indicates completed action)
- Example: I would like to have seen that performance.
- Passive Infinitive: to be + past participle (Focuses on the action received)
- Example: The letter needs to be sent.
2. How Infinitives Are Used
2.1. As a Noun (Subject or Object)
- Subject: To err is human.
- Object: She loves to dance.
2.2. After Adjectives
Used to express purpose or reaction:
- It is easy to understand.
- I was surprised to see you.
2.3. After Certain Verbs
Verbs of desire/decision (e.g., want, hope, decide, promise):
- Example: They decided to move abroad.
2.4. With Question Words
Used after how, what, where, when:
- Example: I do not know what to do.
2.5. Expressing Purpose
Answering “why?”:
- Example: She studies hard to pass the exam.
3. Bare Infinitive Usage
The bare infinitive (without “to”) is used after:
- Modal verbs: can, must, should
- Example: You must go now.
- Causative verbs: let, make, help
- Example: She let me borrow her car.
- Sense verbs: see, hear, feel
- Example: I heard him sing.
The Gerund in English
A gerund is an -ing verb form that functions as a noun while retaining some verb-like qualities. This unique dual nature makes gerunds essential for expressing complex ideas.
1. Formation and Characteristics
Gerunds are created by adding -ing to the base form of verbs (e.g., “run” becomes “running”).
Unlike regular nouns, gerunds can:
- Take direct objects (“Reading books improves knowledge”)
- Be modified by adverbs (“She enjoys walking quickly“)
- Appear in passive forms (“Being recognized was unexpected”)
2. Primary Grammatical Functions
- As Subjects:
- “Learning languages becomes easier with practice.”
- As Objects: (After verbs like enjoy, avoid, consider, finish, suggest)
- “She avoids eating late at night.”
- After Prepositions:
- “He is worried about failing the test.”
- As Subject Complements: (After linking verbs)
- “Her favorite activity is gardening.”
3. Key Distinctions from Infinitives
- Exclusive Gerund Verbs: Some verbs only take gerunds (e.g., admit, avoid, delay, deny, dislike, practice, quit, recommend, resist, suggest).
- Example: “She admitted taking the money.”
- Meaning Changes: With certain verbs, the choice between gerund and infinitive changes the meaning:
- “Stop smoking” (quit the habit)
- “Stop to smoke” (pause an activity to smoke)
4. Special Gerund Forms
- Perfect Gerund: having + past participle (Shows completed action before the main verb)
- Example: “Having studied the material gave her confidence.”
- Passive Gerund: being + past participle
- Example: “Being chosen for the team surprised him.”
- Negative Gerund: not + -ing form
- Example: “Not knowing the answer made him anxious.”