Essential Philosophical Terms Defined
Core Philosophical Concepts
Mythos (Myth)
Symbolic narratives about gods and heroes.
Logos (Rational Explanation)
An explanation based on proofs and arguments.
Episteme (Knowledge or Science)
True belief based on reasons.
Philosophy
Literally meaning “the love of wisdom” (etymologically from the Greek philos = love and sophia = wisdom). In general terms, it is the endeavour to live rationally. More specifically, it is the ultimate and universal “science”: the study of ultimate principles or causes of all things.
Wisdom
To know how to live; “to judge correctly in order to act correctly” (Descartes).
Theoretical Rationality
The method or strategy to maximize the scope and truthfulness of our beliefs.
Practical Rationality
The method or strategy to maximize the knowledge and achievement of our ultimate ends.
Epistemological Theories and Concepts
Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)
The area of philosophy concerned with giving an account of knowledge, including its nature, scope, and limits.
Rationalism
An account of knowledge that downplays the role of sense experience and holds that by employing certain procedures of reason alone, we can attain at least some important truths about the world. Key proponents include Plato and Descartes.
Empiricism
An account of knowledge that holds that all knowledge of the world is derived from sense experience and observation. Empiricists typically hold that reason by itself, independently of experience, cannot establish truths about the world. Key proponents include Locke and Hume.
Criticism (Kant)
An epistemological doctrine that maintains knowledge is the combined result of experience and reason. The object of knowledge is the phenomenon, which is neither reality in itself (independent from the subject) nor a pure product of the human mind, but a synthesis or fusion of “intuitions” (sensory representations) and the concepts of the understanding.
Relativism (Epistemological Relativism)
The view that knowledge, or what can be said to be true, varies relative to individual, social, or cultural conditions. Therefore, there is no unique truth that is universally valid.
Scepticism
The view that calls into question the possibility of knowledge.
Dogmatism
The view that states human beings have the ability to reach a complete understanding of reality, and this complete understanding of reality would be an absolute truth.
Perspectivism (Ortega y Gasset)
An epistemological doctrine that maintains reality is always viewed from a specific perspective. This means that knowledge is always partial and fragmented. Therefore, there is a single truth, but it is not within the reach of any specific individual. What each person perceives is neither false nor erroneous; it is just a fragment of the truth.
Absolute Truth
A statement is absolutely true if it can be proved beyond all possible doubt; that is, if it cannot be denied without logical contradiction.
Objective Truth
A statement is objectively true if it can be proved beyond all reasonable doubt; that is, if it is supported by evidence (information that fits with the best explanation at our disposal for an event or a state of affairs).
Rational Principles for Establishing Best Explanations
- Principle of Compatibility with Well-Established Facts: The best explanation is that which best fits with the established facts.
- Principle of Economy of Explanation: The best explanation is that which is the most economical; that is, the simplest (all other things being equal).
- Principle of Explanatory Power: The best explanation is that which has the greater explanatory power; that is, that which explains more facts than alternative theories.
Moral Philosophy and Ethics
Moral Theory
A theory that explains why an action is right or wrong, or why a person or a person’s character is good or bad.
Moral Objectivism
The view that there are moral standards that are true or correct for everyone.
Moral Relativism
The view that moral standards do not have independent status but are relative to what individuals or cultures believe.
Virtue Ethics
The theory, first presented by Aristotle, that the basis of ethical assessment is character. Rather than seeing the heart of ethics in the consequences of actions or duties, it focuses on the character and dispositions (good habits, or virtues) of the agent.
Divine Command Theory
The theory that holds that moral principles are defined in terms of God’s commands, or that moral duties are logically dependent on God’s commands.
Autonomy
Self-rule or self-determination. For Kant, it is the ability of a person to rationally determine their existence rather than being determined by external forces. Kant contrasts it with heteronomy, where we are determined in what we do by non-rational factors.
Deontological Ethics
From the Greek ‘déon’ = ‘duty’. Deontological ethical systems see certain features in the moral act itself as having intrinsic value (Ethics of Duty). These are contrasted with teleological ethics (from the Greek ‘télos’ = ‘end’), which see the ultimate criterion of morality in some non-moral value (e.g., happiness or welfare) that results from actions (Ethics of Consequences).
Categorical Imperative
Commands actions that are necessary of themselves without reference to other ends. This is contrasted with the hypothetical imperative, which commands actions not for their own sakes but for some other good. For Kant, moral duties command categorically. The Categorical Imperative is the ultimate criterion of morality in Kant’s moral theory.
Universalizability Principle
The first formula of the Categorical Imperative: “Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”
Humanity Principle
The second formula of the Categorical Imperative: “Always act so as to treat humanity, whether in yourself or in others, as an end in itself, never merely as a means.”
Utilitarianism
The moral theory that holds that the moral character of an act depends on its consequences, specifically on how much pleasure or happiness it produces. For utilitarianism, an action is right insofar as it tends to create the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Utility Principle
The ultimate criterion of morality in utilitarian moral theory: “Always act for the greatest good (pleasure or happiness) for the greatest number of people.”