Essential English Grammar Structures and Vocabulary

Posted on Dec 22, 2025 in Administration and Management

English Verb Tenses: Structure and Usage

Present Simple: I sing

Affirmative (AFF): Subject + Verb (infinitive form).
Negative (NEG): Subject + do/does + not + Verb (infinitive).
Interrogative (INT): Do/Does + Subject + Verb (infinitive)?

Third Person Singular Rules (He, She, It)

If the subject is third person singular, add -s.
If the verb ends in -o, -sh, -ch, -ss, -x, -z, add -es.
If the verb ends in -y preceded by a consonant, change -y to -ies.

Present Continuous: I am dancing

AFF: Subject + am/are/is + Verb + -ing.
NEG: Subject + am/are/is + not + Verb + -ing.
INT: Am/Are/Is + Subject + Verb + -ing?

Present Perfect: I have danced

AFF: Subject + have/has + Past Participle.
NEG: Subject + have/has + not + Past Participle.
INT: Have/Has + Subject + Past Participle?

Past Simple: I danced

AFF: Subject + Verb (Past Simple form, often ending in -ed).
NEG: Subject + didn’t + Verb (infinitive).
INT: Did + Subject + Verb (infinitive)?

Past Continuous: I was dancing

AFF: Subject + was/were + Verb + -ing.
NEG: Subject + was/were + not + Verb + -ing.
INT: Was/Were + Subject + Verb + -ing?

Past Perfect: I had danced

AFF: Subject + had + Past Participle.
NEG: Subject + hadn’t + Past Participle.
INT: Had + Subject + Past Participle? (Correction: Original used ‘has’)

Conditional Simple: I would dance

AFF: Subject + would + Verb (infinitive).
NEG: Subject + wouldn’t + Verb (infinitive).
INT: Would + Subject + Verb (infinitive)?

Conditional Continuous: I would be dancing

AFF: Subject + would + be + Verb + -ing.

Conditional Perfect: I would have danced

AFF: Subject + would + have + Past Participle.

Future Simple: I will dance

AFF: Subject + will + Verb (infinitive).
NEG: Subject + won’t + Verb (infinitive).
INT: Will + Subject + Verb (infinitive)?

Future Continuous: I will be dancing

AFF: Subject + will be + Verb + -ing.
NEG: Subject + won’t be + Verb + -ing.
INT: Will + Subject + be + Verb + -ing?

Future Perfect: I will have danced

AFF: Subject + will have + Past Participle.
NEG: Subject + won’t have + Past Participle.
INT: Will + Subject + have + Past Participle?

Future (Going To): I am going to dance

AFF: Subject + am/are/is + going to + Verb (infinitive).
NEG: Subject + am/are/is not + going to + Verb (infinitive).
INT: Am/Are/Is + Subject + going to + Verb (infinitive)?

Advanced Grammar Structures

Passive Voice Construction

The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.

The Direct Object (CD) becomes the Subject.
The Indirect Object (CI) becomes the Subject.

Structure: Be (in the tense of the main verb) + Past Participle of the main verb. The agent is introduced by by.

Vocabulary Note: Unless = a menos que.

Conditional Sentences (If Clauses)

Zero Conditional: (If) Present Simple + Present Simple.
First Conditional: (If) Present Simple + Future Simple.
Second Conditional: (If) Past Simple + Conditional Simple.
Third Conditional: (If) Past Perfect + Conditional Perfect.

Conditional Simple Structure: Subject + would/wouldn’t + Infinitive.

Conditional Perfect Structure: Subject + would/wouldn’t + have + Past Participle.

Question Tags

Use an auxiliary verb (Aux) in the opposite form (affirmative if the main clause is negative, or negative if the main clause is affirmative) + Subject.

If there is no auxiliary, use do, did, will, or would.
The verb have often requires an auxiliary.
Have got uses have as the auxiliary.

Interrogative Words (Wh- Questions)

What: Qué
Which: Cuál
Who: Quién
When: Cuándo
Where: Dónde
Why: Por qué
How: Cómo

Modal Verbs and Their Functions

Possibility: can/could, may/might, perhaps
Certainty/Deduction: must, I’m certain, I’m sure
No Possibility: can’t, it’s impossible
Permission: I’m allowed to, can, may
Ability: Be able to, know how to, can/could
Advice: should, ought to
Prohibition: is banned, prohibited, forbidden, mustn’t
Lack of Necessity: needn’t + infinitive, doesn’t need to + infinitive

Modifiers: Adjectives and Nouns

Modifiers Used with Nouns

Ct = Countable; Unct = Uncountable

A lot of / Lots of / Plenty of: (Ct & Unct; mucho, un montón)
Enough: (Ct & Unct; follows the noun; suficiente)
A few / Few: (Ct; poco)
Little / A little: (Unct; poco)
Too much: (Unct; demasiado)
Too many: (Ct; demasiado)

Modifiers Used with Adjectives/Adverbs

Very: muy
Really: realmente
So / Such: tan
Quite: bastante
Rather / Fairly: más bien / bastante
Too: excessively (e.g., too hot)
Enough: follows the adjective/adverb (e.g., tall enough)
Intensifiers: Absolutely, completely, particularly, etc.

Examples of Usage (Gerunds and Perfect Tenses)

Moderate Preference: I don’t mind + V-ing.
Strong Dislike: I can’t stand + V-ing.
Past Habits: used to, didn’t use to, did you use to?
Present Perfect Simple (Since/For):
- I’ve lived in Lugo since I was born.
- I’ve lived in Lugo for a few years.
- I’ve lived in Lugo since I was three.
Present Perfect Continuous (Duration): I’ve been living in Lugo for ten years.
Past Simple (Completed Action): Esther lived in Lugo for six years.

Essential Vocabulary and Definitions

Technology and Computer Actions

Browse: Search or look for information.
Press: Push your finger on the key.
Arrange: Organize.
Scroll: Move the cursor or mouse.
Swipe: Slide (your finger across a screen).
Switch on / Turn on: Start (a device).
Tap: Touch lightly with fingers.
Text: Send a message.
Update: Bring to the present.

Finance and Value

Afford: Have enough money or time to pay for or deal with something. (Original definition corrected)
Be worth: Have the value of.
Lend: Prestar (give something on loan).
Save up: Ahorrar (keep money for future use).
Waste: Malgastar (use carelessly).
Borrow: Pedir prestado (receive something on loan).

Personality Adjectives

Dedicated: Devoted to a particular purpose or cause.
Dependable: Faithful.
Enthusiastic: Having intense and eager enjoyment.
Kind: Polite.
Sensitive: Easily affected emotionally or physically.
Optimistic: Cheerful, joyful.
Outgoing: Sociable, extrovert.
Sensible: Practical, rational, honest.
Supportive: Kind and helpful to someone at a difficult or unhappy time.
Sympathetic: Showing that you understand someone’s bad situation or feelings.
Truthful: Honest, loyal.

Common Expressions and Phrasal Verbs

Make an effort: Try very hard.
Get involved: Participate.
Get things done: Achieve objectives.
Make an impression: Make people remember you.
Get better: Improve.
Make a difference to: Have an important effect on.
Get the feeling: Have an idea or intuition.
Make the most of: Take advantage of.
Get permission: Obtain approval.
Get used to: Become accustomed to.

Nature and Environment Vocabulary

The wild: Natural habitat, usually uninhabited by humans.
Packs: Groups of wild animals that live and hunt together.
Dam: A wall across a river to stop the water flowing.
Shade: An area that is cool because it isn’t in the sun.
Bank: The land along the sides of a river.
Understanding: Comprehensive, sympathetic.
Funny: Humorous. (Note: Often confused with Friendly, Sociable, Nice, Kind).
Both: One and the other.
At least: A minimum of.
Focus: Concentrarse.

Environmental Terms and Actions

Try out: Do something for the first time to see if you like it.
Catch up with: Reach or get to someone’s level.
Miss out on: Miss an opportunity or chance to attend.
Pick up: Collect.
Take up: Start doing an activity.
To hunt: Cazar.
Hunter: Cazador.
Poacher: Cazador ilegal (illegal hunter).
Endangered animals: Animales en extinción.
Exotic species: Species which do not belong (non-native).
Pollution: Contaminación (e.g., reduce pollution).
Environment: Medio ambiente.
Habitat destruction: Destrucción del hábitat.
Island / Isle: Isla.
Tortoise: Tortuga.
Survive: Sobrevivir.
Biodiversity: Biodiversidad.
To threaten: Amenazar.
Native species: Especies autóctonas.
Humans / Human being: Ser humano.
Forest / Woods: Bosque.
Nature: Naturaleza.
Antonyms: Fortunately ≠ Unfortunately; Stressed ≠ Relaxed.
Land: Territory.
To land: Aterrizar (to arrive on the ground).
Take off: Despegar (to leave the ground).

Commerce and Advertising Terms

Auction: Event where items are sold to the highest bidder.
Object / Item: Ítem.
Offer (verb): Give (in a shop).
Gardening: Taking care of plants.
Painting a fence: Painting a limit or border.
Dog walking: Taking a dog for a walk.
The best bid: Highest price offered.
Charity: Organization that helps people.
Shelter: A building for protection, often for abandoned animals.
Skills: Ability.
Fundraising: The act of collecting money for a cause.
Advertise: Create publicity.
Promote: Support or encourage the realization of something.
Appeal: Attract or interest.
Convince: Persuade someone that something is true or good.
Inform: Give information.
Exaggerate: Say something is better or worse than it really is.
Claim: State or assert that something is true, or demand money/rights.
Broadcast: Transmit by radio or television.
Appear: To become visible or present.
A bargain: An opportunity to purchase a product for a much lower price.
To bargain: Negotiate the price.
A bid: An offer for a product at an auction.
To bid: Offer your best price for a product at an auction.
A browser: A person who looks at products in a shop.
To browse: Search or look around.
A charge: The action of getting money from a customer.
Charity shop: A shop where goods are sold to raise money for charity.
Discounts: A reduction on a price.
Selection: The act of choosing your favorite product.
Purchase: Buy (noun or verb).
Supplier: A person or organization that provides products.
To consume / To purchase: Buy.
To refund: Give the customer’s money back.
To select: Choose.
To supply: Bring products to the shop, stock.
A consumer: A person who buys in a shop or on the Internet.
A purchase: The action of buying.
A refund: The money returned to a customer.

Energy and Technology Terms

A battery: Something needed to get power for an item.
A eco-house: A place where alternative energy is used.
An electric motor: An engine that works with electricity.
A light bulb: Something needed at home to get light.
A petrol engine: A motor that works with fuel.
A power station: A factory where energy is generated.
A smart watch: A high-tech watch used to check the time.
A turbine: A machine that generates power.
A device: An electronic gadget.
A source of energy: The origin of power.
Alternative: Optional.
Chemical: Related to Chemistry.
Electronic: Related to systems that work electronically.
Energy-saving: That spends less energy.
Green: That does not cause pollution.
High-tech: That uses the latest technologies.
Hydroelectric: That gets energy from water.
Innovative: Original.
Mechanical: That works with an engine.
Smart: Technologically advanced.
Solar: Generated by the sun.
Sustainable: Capable of being maintained at a certain rate or level.
Wind-powered: Generated by the wind.
Wireless: Without a cable.

Emotions, Health, and Fitness

Emotions and Moods

Grumpy: Angry.
Sleepy: Feeling tired when you don’t sleep enough.
Anxious: Nervous.
Dynamic: Very active.
Cheerful: Happy.
Upset: Sad.
In a good mood: Happy, cheerful.

Phrasal Verbs (Emotional/Mental)

Cheer up: Become happy.
Work out: Do exercise.
Wake up: Stop sleeping.
Open up to: Tell someone about your feelings.
Face up to: Confront (a difficult situation).
Cut down on: Reduce.
Calm down: Relax.
Chill out: Relax, rest.

Injuries and Ailments

A broken arm: A fracture.
A bruised knee: A part of your body having a contusion.
An aching muscle: When your muscle hurts.
A sprained ankle: Injured joint.
A swollen ankle: Enlarged part of your body (by injury or infection).
A cut: An incision.
A sore back: An aching back.
Itchy skin: Irritated external part of your body.

Fitness and Safety Actions

Achieve: Get, reach, be successful.
Avoid (injuries/problems): Stay away from.
(Don’t) lift weights: Raise upward/elevate heavy objects.
Wear the right footwear/equipment: Put on the suitable kit.
Check the ingredients: Revise components.

Irregular Verb Conjugation List

(Base Form – Past Simple – Past Participle)

be – was/were – been
become – became – become
begin – began – begun
bid (pujar) – bid – bid
bite (morder) – bit – bitten
break – broke – broken
bring (traer) – brought – brought
build – built – built
burn (quemar) – burnt/burned – burnt/burned
burst (explotar) – burst – burst
buy – bought – bought
catch (atrapar) – caught – caught
choose (elegir) – chose – chosen
come (venir) – came – come
cost – cost – cost
do – did – done
draw – drew – drawn
dream – dreamt – dreamt
drink – drank – drunk
drive – drove – driven
eat – ate – eaten
fall – fell – fallen
feed (alimentar) – fed – fed
feel – felt – felt
fight – fought – fought
find – found – found
fly – flew – flown
forget – forgot – forgotten
freeze (helar) – froze – frozen
get – got – got
give – gave – given
go – went – gone/been
grow (crecer) – grew – grown (Correction: Original used ‘grow’)
hang (colgar) – hung – hung
have (tener) – had – had
hear – heard – heard
hide (esconder) – hid – hidden
hit – hit – hit
hold – held – held
hurt (herir) – hurt – hurt
keep (guardar) – kept – kept
know – knew – known
learn – learnt – learnt
leave – left – left
lend (prestar) – lent – lent
lie (recline) – lay – lain
lose – lost – lost
make – made – made
meet – met – met
mow (segar) – mowed – mown
pay – paid – paid
put – put – put
read – read – read
ride – rode – ridden
ring (sonar) – rang – rung
run – ran – run
say – said – said
see – saw – seen
sell (vender) – sold – sold
send – sent – sent
set (colocar) – set – set
shake – shook – shaken
shine – shone – shone
shut (cerrar) – shut – shut
sing – sang – sung
sit – sat – sat (Correction: Original used ‘set’)
sleep – slept – slept
slide – slid – slid
speak – spoke – spoken
spend – spent – spent
spread (esparcir) – spread – spread
stand – stood – stood
steal – stole – stolen
swim – swam – swum
take – took – taken
teach – taught – taught
tell (contar) – told – told
think – thought – thought
throw – threw – thrown (Correction: Original used ‘throw’)
understand – understood – understood
wake (despertar) – woke – woken
wear – wore – worn
write – wrote – written
win – won – won