Essential Concepts in Biology, Ecology, and Disaster Management

Posted on Oct 11, 2025 in Biology

Disaster Management Principles and Practices

Post-Disaster Management Activities

  1. Providing all types of necessary help to victims of disasters.
  2. Participation of preferably local people saved from the disaster in arranging help for victims.
  3. Quick establishment of help centers. Different types of disasters require different types of control centers.
  4. Categorization of help material received from the control center, delivering the material to victims, and continuous review of the assistance provided.
  5. Being always prepared for disaster rescue.

Pre-Disaster Management Planning

This includes the complete preparation and planning to face any type of disaster. For that purpose:

  1. Identifying disaster-prone areas.
  2. Collecting information about the intensity and probable sites of disasters through predictive intensity maps and hazard maps, respectively.
  3. Getting special training for disaster management.
  4. Increasing awareness about disaster management among the general public through training programs, mass media, etc.

Objectives of Disaster Management

  1. Saving human life during the calamity and rescuing affected people.
  2. Supplying essential commodities to people to reduce the effects of the disaster.
  3. Restoring human life in the region by creating stability after the disaster.
  4. Rehabilitating disaster victims.
  5. Considering protective measures so that such disasters will not recur in the future, and taking care to reduce their intensity.

Objectives of Mock Drills

  1. Evaluating the response to the disaster scenario.
  2. Improving coordination between various departments of disaster control.
  3. Identification of own abilities (resource assessment).
  4. Improving the ability of quick response to disaster.
  5. Checking the competency of the planned actions.
  6. Identifying possible errors and risks.

Key Environmental Management Concepts

Awareness Components

  • Educational Guidance
  • Imitation (Modeling behavior)
  • Organization (Structured programs)
  • Participation (Community involvement)

Prevention Strategies

  1. Preventing possible harms (environmental damage).
  2. Designing new plans or technologies.
  3. Addressing factors harmful to the environment.

Production (Revitalization)

  1. Revival of harmed environmental factors.
  2. Attempting innovation in sustainable practices.

Control Measures

  • Preventing the harm.
  • Stopping harmful activities.
  • Changing the mindset (behavioral change).

Preservation Techniques

  1. Preserving whatever has been left over (remaining resources).
  2. Implementing remedies to prevent further loss.
  3. Preserving unknown regions (biodiversity hotspots).

Conservation

Conserving the available resources.

Applications and Benefits of Biotechnology

Uses of Stem Cells

  1. Cell Therapy: Stem cells are used to replace damaged cells in conditions like diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease.
  2. Blood Cell Production: Used to produce blood cells required in conditions like leukemia and thalassemia.
  3. Organ transplantation.

Benefits of Biotechnology

  1. It has become possible to increase the yield per hectare, irrespective of the limitations of crop-land area.
  2. Expenses on disease control have minimized due to the development of resistant varieties.
  3. Due to the development of fast fruit-setting varieties, yield per annum has increased.
  4. Development of stress-resistant varieties which can withstand variable temperature, water stress, changing soil fertility, etc., has become possible.

Commercial Applications of Biotechnology

  1. Crop Biotechnology

    Biotechnology is used in the agricultural field to improve yield and variety, including the development of: hybrid seeds, genetically modified crops, herbicide-tolerant plants, and biofertilizers.

  2. Medical and Therapeutic Applications

    Vaccines and vaccination, treatments, interferon production, gene therapy, and cloning (i.e., reproductive and therapeutic cloning) are important developments of biotechnology.

  3. Forensics and Identification

    DNA Fingerprinting: The identity of any person can be established with the help of their available DNA.

Biofertilizers

Examples include Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and plants like Azolla.

Basic Structure of a Flower

Floral Whorls

A flower consists of four floral whorls:

  • Accessory Whorls: Calyx and Corolla
  • Essential Whorls: Androecium and Gynoecium

Whorl Components

  • Members of the Calyx are called sepals.
  • Members of the Corolla are called petals.
  • Members of the Androecium (male reproductive part) are called stamens.
  • Members of the Gynoecium (female reproductive part) are called carpels.

Flower Types and Support

  • Androecium refers to the male part of the flower.
  • Gynoecium refers to the female part of the flower (e.g., Papaya often has separate male and female flowers).
  • Flowers with a stalk for support are called pedicellate; the stalk is the pedicel.
  • Flowers without a stalk are called sessile.

Human Reproductive System and Processes

Functions of Female Reproductive Organs

  • Oviduct (Fallopian Tube)

    1. After ovulation, it transports the oocyte from the ovaries to the uterus.
    2. It is the site for fertilization, where sperm fertilizes the oocyte.

  • Ovary

    1. It develops and releases oocytes.
    2. It secretes hormones like estrogen and progesterone.

  • Uterus

    1. After fertilization, the embryo is implanted into the uterus.
    2. It can accommodate the growing fetus and contracts to push the baby during labor.

Gamete Formation and Lifespan

Sperms are produced continuously in the testes of males from the beginning of maturation (puberty) till death.

In females, at the time of birth, there are 2–4 million immature oocytes in the ovaries of the female fetus. An oocyte matures and is released from the ovary every month from the beginning of maturity up to the age of menopause (approximately 45–50 years of age).

Menopause

Menopause is the stoppage of the functioning of the female reproductive system. At the age of about 45–50 years, the secretion of hormones controlling the functions of the female reproductive system either stops or becomes irregular. This causes menopause. Approximately 400 oocytes mature and are released during the reproductive lifespan.

Fertilization and Sex Determination

Formation of a zygote by the union of sperm and ovum is called fertilization.

Genetic Sex Determination

  1. In human males, the 23rd pair of chromosomes contains two dissimilar chromosomes: the ‘X’ chromosome and the ‘Y’ chromosome (XY).
  2. In females, the 23rd pair contains two ‘X’ chromosomes (XX).
  3. All children inherit one ‘X’ chromosome from their mother. The other chromosome is inherited from the father.
  4. If the chromosome inherited from the father is ‘X’, the child will be a girl (XX); if it is ‘Y’, the child will be a boy (XY).

The Menstrual Cycle

The female reproductive system undergoes changes at puberty, and these changes repeat at intervals of every 28 to 30 days. This is called the menstrual cycle.

It is controlled by four hormones:

  • Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
  • Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
  • Estrogen
  • Progesterone

Ovulation

Ovulation is a process in which the follicle ruptures under the effect of Luteinizing Hormone (LH), and the oocyte is released from the ovary. Menstrual bleeding typically lasts for about five days.

Microbiology and Waste Management

Products of Sewage Processing

Sewage processing yields:

  • Clean, environmentally safe water.
  • Sludge, which can be used as fertilizer after microbial decomposition.

Uses of Xanthan Gum

Xanthan gum is used in the production of:

  • High-quality paper
  • Toothpaste
  • Textile pigments
  • Weedicides
  • Pigments
  • Fertilizers

Applications of Microbes

Microbes are utilized for:

  • Cleaning oil spills
  • Decomposing PET (plastics)
  • Sewage treatment
  • Biofuel production
  • Biopesticides
  • Microbial inoculants (for soil health)

Landfill Sites

Degradable waste accumulated in urban areas is used for landfilling. Large pits are dug in open spaces far away from residential areas. These pits are lined with plastic sheets as a precaution against soil pollution due to the leaching of toxic and harmful substances (leachate).

Zoological Classification: Phyla and Classes

Invertebrate Phyla and Examples

  • Porifera: Sycon, Euplectella, Hyalonema
  • Cnidaria: Hydra
  • Platyhelminthes: Tapeworm, Planaria
  • Aschelminthes: Loa loa (Filarial worm)
  • Annelida: Leech, Earthworm
  • Arthropoda: Crab, Spider
  • Mollusca: Snail, Octopus
  • Echinodermata: Starfish
  • Hemichordata: Balanoglossus

Vertebrate Classes and Examples

  • Cyclostomata: Petromyzon (Lamprey)
  • Pisces (Fish): Rohu, Shark
  • Amphibia: Frog, Toad
  • Reptilia: Lizard, Snake
  • Aves (Birds): Parrot
  • Mammalia: Elephant