Epistemology: Understanding Knowledge and Truth
Epistemology
Epistemology is concerned with the analysis of knowledge, determining its origin, the methods we follow to obtain it, and the limits of what we can know.
Knowledge, Opinion, and Belief
- Opinion: A subjective assessment that we cannot say we are sure of and that we cannot prove.
- Belief:
- Dubitative use: Expresses that we are not really sure of the truth of what we say.
- Assertive use: We speak of belief when we are sure of something even though we do not have enough evidence to prove it.
- Knowledge: A belief that we are sure of, and moreover, that we can prove.
Types of Knowledge
- Theoretical knowledge: Constituted by all the reports that describe and explain the natural and social world around us.
- Practical knowledge: Involves acting on knowledge, whether in the manipulation of the environment or in the production of goods, etc.
Theoretical Knowledge
- Describe: Find and analyze what happens and identify its characteristics.
- Explain: Determine the causes of what happens.
- Predict: Anticipate what will happen.
Criteria to Recognize the Truth
- Evidence: Knowledge is evident when there is a certainty that keeps us from doubting its truth.
Attitudes to the Possibility of Knowledge
- Dogmatism: The philosophical position whereby we can acquire secure and universal knowledge, and be absolutely sure of that. It is the most optimistic attitude of philosophy and was defended by Descartes.
- Skepticism: Doubt as to enable a firm and sure knowledge. Pyrrho is considered the first skeptic; he argues that feelings are changing.
- Criticism: A middle ground between dogmatism and skepticism. For critical thinkers like Kant, knowledge is possible, but it is questionable and not definitive. It must be continually reviewed and critiqued for possible forgeries and errors.
- Relativism: Denies the existence of absolute truth. Rejects the claim of objective and universal knowledge. The Sophists are considered the fathers of relativism.
- Perspectivism: Does not deny the theoretical possibility of an absolute truth. Every person who knows does so from a particular point of view or perspective. Meeting all of them, if possible, would be the absolute truth. Ortega y Gasset has defended perspectivism.
Scientific Method
- Deductive method: Consists of extracting a specific conclusion from general data. It has unquestionable validity but can only be used with formal sciences.
- Inductive method: Consists of extracting, from certain observations or particular experiences, the general principle implicit in them. Not always valid, as there may be cases where a different conclusion is not met.
- Hypothetico-deductive method: The most effective method for the empirical sciences. It combines the above methods and is equipped with several steps:
- Observation of reality: Observation of the problem in question (e.g., the color of swans).
- Formulation of the problem: (e.g., What color are the swans?).
- Formulation of hypotheses: Looking for a possible explanation, not proven, of the problem addressed (e.g., swans are white).
- Deduction of consequences: Lessons learned from the problem by the hypothesis if this were true (e.g., all swans observed are to be white).
- Statistical hypotheses: Checks whether expected consequences are true (e.g., observe a significant amount of swans, such as 4000).
- Refutation/Confirmation of hypothesis: If the expected consequences are not met, a new hypothesis is sought, and the process is repeated. If implemented, the hypothesis is confirmed (e.g., a black swan is observed, such as an Australian swan).
- Obtaining the results: A new law or theory is made (e.g., proposing a new theory: “Swans are white or black”).
Truth and Facts
Distinguish between reality and appearance. Truth is authentically related to realities as opposed to appearances. Therefore, the search for truth is a process of unveiling the authentic.
Empirical Propositions of Truth
- Correspondence: Where there is a fitness between proposition and reality.
- Consistency: If not inconsistent with other sentences.
- Success: It is useful when true and leads to success.
Criteria to Determine the Truth
- Evidence: When it produces a certainty that prevents us from doubting, though not satisfactory because it is subjective.
- Intersubjectivity: Our beliefs are recognized by any rational subject, but not enough because the whole society may be wrong.
The Conquest of Truth
It is necessary to leave ignorance and error behind. It must be done collectively and permanently.
Scientific Explanations
It is the answer to a “why.” According to Ernest Nagel, there are four types:
- Deductive: Use general laws.
- Probabilistic: Factors likely to have caused this phenomenon.
- Teleological: Finally resorted to carrying out an action and achieving media.
- Genetic: The origin or history of the phenomenon.
Progress and Limits of Science
Two positions:
- Karl Popper: The continuing advancement of science (each new theory gets closer to the truth).
- Thomas Kuhn: Scientific revolutions (in the scientific paradigm, anomalies occur that can cause a scientific crisis).
Social Dimension of Science
Scientific investigation depends on political and economic institutions. Social and economic priorities set out scientific objectives. The complexity of current research has favored the existence of an international scientific community, disclosure of the search, and scientific discoveries.